From f65e64a7243d725d35bbf86ca6f5ae4c350dbcc5 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Andrey Rakhmatullin <wrar@wrar.name>
Date: Wed, 16 Oct 2024 21:38:43 +0500
Subject: [PATCH 1/8] Misc typing improvements. (#6494)

---
 scrapy/commands/check.py                      |  5 ++-
 scrapy/commands/genspider.py                  |  4 +--
 scrapy/commands/parse.py                      |  6 ++--
 scrapy/core/engine.py                         |  4 +--
 scrapy/core/scraper.py                        |  6 ++--
 scrapy/core/spidermw.py                       |  4 +--
 scrapy/crawler.py                             | 34 +++++++++----------
 .../downloadermiddlewares/httpcompression.py  |  2 +-
 scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/robotstxt.py     |  2 +-
 scrapy/extensions/feedexport.py               |  2 +-
 scrapy/pipelines/files.py                     |  2 +-
 scrapy/utils/defer.py                         |  6 +++-
 tox.ini                                       |  8 ++---
 13 files changed, 46 insertions(+), 39 deletions(-)

diff --git a/scrapy/commands/check.py b/scrapy/commands/check.py
index c7946605b..1ce155da7 100644
--- a/scrapy/commands/check.py
+++ b/scrapy/commands/check.py
@@ -13,8 +13,7 @@ from scrapy.utils.misc import load_object, set_environ
 class TextTestResult(_TextTestResult):
     def printSummary(self, start: float, stop: float) -> None:
         write = self.stream.write
-        # _WritelnDecorator isn't implemented in typeshed yet
-        writeln = self.stream.writeln  # type: ignore[attr-defined]
+        writeln = self.stream.writeln
 
         run = self.testsRun
         plural = "s" if run != 1 else ""
@@ -84,7 +83,7 @@ class Command(ScrapyCommand):
         with set_environ(SCRAPY_CHECK="true"):
             for spidername in args or spider_loader.list():
                 spidercls = spider_loader.load(spidername)
-                spidercls.start_requests = lambda s: conman.from_spider(s, result)
+                spidercls.start_requests = lambda s: conman.from_spider(s, result)  # type: ignore[assignment,method-assign,return-value]
 
                 tested_methods = conman.tested_methods_from_spidercls(spidercls)
                 if opts.list:
diff --git a/scrapy/commands/genspider.py b/scrapy/commands/genspider.py
index a9b7a6eee..2ac281212 100644
--- a/scrapy/commands/genspider.py
+++ b/scrapy/commands/genspider.py
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ import shutil
 import string
 from importlib import import_module
 from pathlib import Path
-from typing import Optional, Union, cast
+from typing import Any, Optional, Union, cast
 from urllib.parse import urlparse
 
 import scrapy
@@ -122,7 +122,7 @@ class Command(ScrapyCommand):
         name: str,
         url: str,
         template_name: str,
-    ):
+    ) -> dict[str, Any]:
         capitalized_module = "".join(s.capitalize() for s in module.split("_"))
         return {
             "project_name": self.settings.get("BOT_NAME"),
diff --git a/scrapy/commands/parse.py b/scrapy/commands/parse.py
index bd1fad14b..ff2bb8ab9 100644
--- a/scrapy/commands/parse.py
+++ b/scrapy/commands/parse.py
@@ -38,9 +38,10 @@ _T = TypeVar("_T")
 class Command(BaseRunSpiderCommand):
     requires_project = True
 
-    spider = None
+    spider: Optional[Spider] = None
     items: dict[int, list[Any]] = {}
     requests: dict[int, list[Request]] = {}
+    spidercls: Optional[type[Spider]]
 
     first_response = None
 
@@ -261,10 +262,11 @@ class Command(BaseRunSpiderCommand):
             yield self.prepare_request(spider, Request(url), opts)
 
         if self.spidercls:
-            self.spidercls.start_requests = _start_requests
+            self.spidercls.start_requests = _start_requests  # type: ignore[assignment,method-assign]
 
     def start_parsing(self, url: str, opts: argparse.Namespace) -> None:
         assert self.crawler_process
+        assert self.spidercls
         self.crawler_process.crawl(self.spidercls, **opts.spargs)
         self.pcrawler = list(self.crawler_process.crawlers)[0]
         self.crawler_process.start()
diff --git a/scrapy/core/engine.py b/scrapy/core/engine.py
index bb09d066f..f3d74eccf 100644
--- a/scrapy/core/engine.py
+++ b/scrapy/core/engine.py
@@ -100,7 +100,7 @@ class ExecutionEngine:
         )
         downloader_cls: type[Downloader] = load_object(self.settings["DOWNLOADER"])
         self.downloader: Downloader = downloader_cls(crawler)
-        self.scraper = Scraper(crawler)
+        self.scraper: Scraper = Scraper(crawler)
         self._spider_closed_callback: Callable[[Spider], Optional[Deferred[None]]] = (
             spider_closed_callback
         )
@@ -325,7 +325,7 @@ class ExecutionEngine:
             raise RuntimeError(f"No open spider to crawl: {request}")
         d: Deferred[Union[Response, Request]] = self._download(request)
         # Deferred.addBoth() overloads don't seem to support a Union[_T, Deferred[_T]] return type
-        d2: Deferred[Response] = d.addBoth(self._downloaded, request)  # type: ignore[arg-type]
+        d2: Deferred[Response] = d.addBoth(self._downloaded, request)  # type: ignore[call-overload]
         return d2
 
     def _downloaded(
diff --git a/scrapy/core/scraper.py b/scrapy/core/scraper.py
index 29d7cb0c8..71a0d6aeb 100644
--- a/scrapy/core/scraper.py
+++ b/scrapy/core/scraper.py
@@ -55,7 +55,7 @@ class Slot:
     MIN_RESPONSE_SIZE = 1024
 
     def __init__(self, max_active_size: int = 5000000):
-        self.max_active_size = max_active_size
+        self.max_active_size: int = max_active_size
         self.queue: deque[QueueTuple] = deque()
         self.active: set[Request] = set()
         self.active_size: int = 0
@@ -316,7 +316,9 @@ class Scraper:
             )
         return None
 
-    def start_itemproc(self, item, *, response: Optional[Response]) -> Deferred[Any]:
+    def start_itemproc(
+        self, item: Any, *, response: Optional[Response]
+    ) -> Deferred[Any]:
         """Send *item* to the item pipelines for processing.
 
         *response* is the source of the item data. If the item does not come
diff --git a/scrapy/core/spidermw.py b/scrapy/core/spidermw.py
index 223e4192e..3c8513042 100644
--- a/scrapy/core/spidermw.py
+++ b/scrapy/core/spidermw.py
@@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ class SpiderMiddlewareManager(MiddlewareManager):
 
     def _process_spider_input(
         self,
-        scrape_func: ScrapeFunc,
+        scrape_func: ScrapeFunc[_T],
         response: Response,
         request: Request,
         spider: Spider,
@@ -306,7 +306,7 @@ class SpiderMiddlewareManager(MiddlewareManager):
 
     def scrape_response(
         self,
-        scrape_func: ScrapeFunc,
+        scrape_func: ScrapeFunc[_T],
         response: Response,
         request: Request,
         spider: Spider,
diff --git a/scrapy/crawler.py b/scrapy/crawler.py
index b0a4932e1..e75ef52ac 100644
--- a/scrapy/crawler.py
+++ b/scrapy/crawler.py
@@ -42,8 +42,9 @@ from scrapy.utils.reactor import (
 )
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
-    from collections.abc import Generator
+    from collections.abc import Generator, Iterable
 
+    from scrapy.spiderloader import SpiderLoader
     from scrapy.utils.request import RequestFingerprinter
 
 
@@ -178,16 +179,18 @@ class Crawler:
             yield maybeDeferred(self.engine.stop)
 
     @staticmethod
-    def _get_component(component_class, components):
+    def _get_component(
+        component_class: type[_T], components: Iterable[Any]
+    ) -> Optional[_T]:
         for component in components:
             if isinstance(component, component_class):
                 return component
         return None
 
-    def get_addon(self, cls):
+    def get_addon(self, cls: type[_T]) -> Optional[_T]:
         return self._get_component(cls, self.addons.addons)
 
-    def get_downloader_middleware(self, cls):
+    def get_downloader_middleware(self, cls: type[_T]) -> Optional[_T]:
         if not self.engine:
             raise RuntimeError(
                 "Crawler.get_downloader_middleware() can only be called after "
@@ -195,7 +198,7 @@ class Crawler:
             )
         return self._get_component(cls, self.engine.downloader.middleware.middlewares)
 
-    def get_extension(self, cls):
+    def get_extension(self, cls: type[_T]) -> Optional[_T]:
         if not self.extensions:
             raise RuntimeError(
                 "Crawler.get_extension() can only be called after the "
@@ -203,7 +206,7 @@ class Crawler:
             )
         return self._get_component(cls, self.extensions.middlewares)
 
-    def get_item_pipeline(self, cls):
+    def get_item_pipeline(self, cls: type[_T]) -> Optional[_T]:
         if not self.engine:
             raise RuntimeError(
                 "Crawler.get_item_pipeline() can only be called after the "
@@ -211,7 +214,7 @@ class Crawler:
             )
         return self._get_component(cls, self.engine.scraper.itemproc.middlewares)
 
-    def get_spider_middleware(self, cls):
+    def get_spider_middleware(self, cls: type[_T]) -> Optional[_T]:
         if not self.engine:
             raise RuntimeError(
                 "Crawler.get_spider_middleware() can only be called after the "
@@ -240,18 +243,18 @@ class CrawlerRunner:
     )
 
     @staticmethod
-    def _get_spider_loader(settings: BaseSettings):
+    def _get_spider_loader(settings: BaseSettings) -> SpiderLoader:
         """Get SpiderLoader instance from settings"""
         cls_path = settings.get("SPIDER_LOADER_CLASS")
         loader_cls = load_object(cls_path)
         verifyClass(ISpiderLoader, loader_cls)
-        return loader_cls.from_settings(settings.frozencopy())
+        return cast("SpiderLoader", loader_cls.from_settings(settings.frozencopy()))
 
     def __init__(self, settings: Union[dict[str, Any], Settings, None] = None):
         if isinstance(settings, dict) or settings is None:
             settings = Settings(settings)
-        self.settings = settings
-        self.spider_loader = self._get_spider_loader(settings)
+        self.settings: Settings = settings
+        self.spider_loader: SpiderLoader = self._get_spider_loader(settings)
         self._crawlers: set[Crawler] = set()
         self._active: set[Deferred[None]] = set()
         self.bootstrap_failed = False
@@ -329,8 +332,7 @@ class CrawlerRunner:
     def _create_crawler(self, spidercls: Union[str, type[Spider]]) -> Crawler:
         if isinstance(spidercls, str):
             spidercls = self.spider_loader.load(spidercls)
-        # temporary cast until self.spider_loader is typed
-        return Crawler(cast(type[Spider], spidercls), self.settings)
+        return Crawler(spidercls, self.settings)
 
     def stop(self) -> Deferred[Any]:
         """
@@ -384,7 +386,7 @@ class CrawlerProcess(CrawlerRunner):
         super().__init__(settings)
         configure_logging(self.settings, install_root_handler)
         log_scrapy_info(self.settings)
-        self._initialized_reactor = False
+        self._initialized_reactor: bool = False
 
     def _signal_shutdown(self, signum: int, _: Any) -> None:
         from twisted.internet import reactor
@@ -413,9 +415,7 @@ class CrawlerProcess(CrawlerRunner):
         init_reactor = not self._initialized_reactor
         self._initialized_reactor = True
         # temporary cast until self.spider_loader is typed
-        return Crawler(
-            cast(type[Spider], spidercls), self.settings, init_reactor=init_reactor
-        )
+        return Crawler(spidercls, self.settings, init_reactor=init_reactor)
 
     def start(
         self, stop_after_crawl: bool = True, install_signal_handlers: bool = True
diff --git a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/httpcompression.py b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/httpcompression.py
index b0cede97d..d913ca25d 100644
--- a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/httpcompression.py
+++ b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/httpcompression.py
@@ -88,7 +88,7 @@ class HttpCompressionMiddleware:
             crawler.signals.connect(mw.open_spider, signals.spider_opened)
             return mw
 
-    def open_spider(self, spider):
+    def open_spider(self, spider: Spider) -> None:
         if hasattr(spider, "download_maxsize"):
             self._max_size = spider.download_maxsize
         if hasattr(spider, "download_warnsize"):
diff --git a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/robotstxt.py b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/robotstxt.py
index 421c58e68..81ba009d6 100644
--- a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/robotstxt.py
+++ b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/robotstxt.py
@@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ class RobotsTxtMiddleware:
         if request.url.startswith("data:") or request.url.startswith("file:"):
             return None
         d: Deferred[Optional[RobotParser]] = maybeDeferred(
-            self.robot_parser, request, spider  # type: ignore[arg-type]
+            self.robot_parser, request, spider  # type: ignore[call-overload]
         )
         d2: Deferred[None] = d.addCallback(self.process_request_2, request, spider)
         return d2
diff --git a/scrapy/extensions/feedexport.py b/scrapy/extensions/feedexport.py
index b1001dabb..7bfcbe6f3 100644
--- a/scrapy/extensions/feedexport.py
+++ b/scrapy/extensions/feedexport.py
@@ -578,7 +578,7 @@ class FeedExporter:
             return None
 
         logmsg = f"{slot.format} feed ({slot.itemcount} items) in: {slot.uri}"
-        d: Deferred[None] = maybeDeferred(slot.storage.store, get_file(slot))  # type: ignore[arg-type]
+        d: Deferred[None] = maybeDeferred(slot.storage.store, get_file(slot))  # type: ignore[call-overload]
 
         d.addCallback(
             self._handle_store_success, logmsg, spider, type(slot.storage).__name__
diff --git a/scrapy/pipelines/files.py b/scrapy/pipelines/files.py
index 9314856c1..32e9ffe7c 100644
--- a/scrapy/pipelines/files.py
+++ b/scrapy/pipelines/files.py
@@ -550,7 +550,7 @@ class FilesPipeline(MediaPipeline):
 
         path = self.file_path(request, info=info, item=item)
         # maybeDeferred() overloads don't seem to support a Union[_T, Deferred[_T]] return type
-        dfd: Deferred[StatInfo] = maybeDeferred(self.store.stat_file, path, info)  # type: ignore[arg-type]
+        dfd: Deferred[StatInfo] = maybeDeferred(self.store.stat_file, path, info)  # type: ignore[call-overload]
         dfd2: Deferred[Optional[FileInfo]] = dfd.addCallback(_onsuccess)
         dfd2.addErrback(lambda _: None)
         dfd2.addErrback(
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/defer.py b/scrapy/utils/defer.py
index 3a0dee8f1..aeacadb1c 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/defer.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/defer.py
@@ -305,7 +305,11 @@ def process_parallel(
         dfds, fireOnOneErrback=True, consumeErrors=True
     )
     d2: Deferred[list[_T2]] = d.addCallback(lambda r: [x[1] for x in r])
-    d2.addErrback(lambda f: f.value.subFailure)
+
+    def eb(failure: Failure) -> Failure:
+        return failure.value.subFailure
+
+    d2.addErrback(eb)
     return d2
 
 
diff --git a/tox.ini b/tox.ini
index dad15c6ab..79f72a0f2 100644
--- a/tox.ini
+++ b/tox.ini
@@ -46,12 +46,12 @@ install_command =
 [testenv:typing]
 basepython = python3
 deps =
-    mypy==1.11.1
+    mypy==1.12.0
     typing-extensions==4.12.2
-    types-lxml==2024.8.7
+    types-lxml==2024.9.16
     types-Pygments==2.18.0.20240506
-    botocore-stubs==1.34.158
-    boto3-stubs[s3]==1.34.158
+    botocore-stubs==1.35.39
+    boto3-stubs[s3]==1.35.39
     attrs >= 18.2.0
     Pillow >= 10.3.0
     pyOpenSSL >= 24.2.1

From c8e87ab21a216c546baa797b9a4e6fe27751a4d3 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Julian Ste <31321934+julian-st@users.noreply.github.com>
Date: Thu, 17 Oct 2024 17:03:16 +0200
Subject: [PATCH 2/8] Fixed typos (#6497)

---
 docs/faq.rst | 6 +++---
 1 file changed, 3 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-)

diff --git a/docs/faq.rst b/docs/faq.rst
index d394406e8..0b650f522 100644
--- a/docs/faq.rst
+++ b/docs/faq.rst
@@ -269,7 +269,7 @@ To dump into a CSV file::
 
     scrapy crawl myspider -O items.csv
 
-To dump into a XML file::
+To dump into an XML file::
 
     scrapy crawl myspider -O items.xml
 
@@ -417,8 +417,8 @@ How can I make a blank request?
 
     blank_request = Request("data:,")
 
-In this case, the URL is set to a data URI scheme. Data URLs allow you to include data 
-in-line in web pages as if they were external resources. The "data:" scheme with an empty 
+In this case, the URL is set to a data URI scheme. Data URLs allow you to include data
+inline within web pages, similar to external resources. The "data:" scheme with an empty
 content (",") essentially creates a request to a data URL without any specific content.
 
 

From c9095ef927bc42e8f23c5d02c05a7b918f7aa5bf Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Andrey Rakhmatullin <wrar@wrar.name>
Date: Thu, 17 Oct 2024 21:22:34 +0500
Subject: [PATCH 3/8] Remove --keep-runtime-typing from pyupgrade.

---
 .pre-commit-config.yaml                       |  4 +-
 scrapy/cmdline.py                             | 10 +--
 scrapy/commands/__init__.py                   |  6 +-
 scrapy/commands/genspider.py                  |  8 +-
 scrapy/commands/parse.py                      | 22 +++---
 scrapy/commands/runspider.py                  |  4 +-
 scrapy/commands/startproject.py               |  5 +-
 scrapy/contracts/__init__.py                  | 12 ++-
 scrapy/contracts/default.py                   |  6 +-
 scrapy/core/downloader/__init__.py            | 12 ++-
 scrapy/core/downloader/contextfactory.py      |  6 +-
 scrapy/core/downloader/handlers/__init__.py   | 12 +--
 scrapy/core/downloader/handlers/ftp.py        |  8 +-
 scrapy/core/downloader/handlers/http11.py     | 62 ++++++++--------
 scrapy/core/downloader/handlers/http2.py      |  8 +-
 scrapy/core/downloader/handlers/s3.py         |  8 +-
 scrapy/core/downloader/middleware.py          | 14 ++--
 scrapy/core/downloader/webclient.py           |  6 +-
 scrapy/core/engine.py                         | 41 +++++------
 scrapy/core/http2/agent.py                    | 10 +--
 scrapy/core/http2/protocol.py                 |  8 +-
 scrapy/core/http2/stream.py                   |  4 +-
 scrapy/core/scheduler.py                      | 46 ++++++------
 scrapy/core/scraper.py                        | 51 ++++++-------
 scrapy/core/spidermw.py                       | 56 +++++++-------
 scrapy/crawler.py                             | 40 +++++-----
 scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/ajaxcrawl.py     |  4 +-
 scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/cookies.py       |  8 +-
 .../downloadermiddlewares/defaultheaders.py   |  4 +-
 .../downloadermiddlewares/downloadtimeout.py  |  4 +-
 scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/httpauth.py      |  4 +-
 scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/httpcache.py     | 16 ++--
 .../downloadermiddlewares/httpcompression.py  | 10 +--
 scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/httpproxy.py     | 20 ++---
 scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/redirect.py      |  6 +-
 scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/retry.py         | 18 ++---
 scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/robotstxt.py     | 22 +++---
 scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/stats.py         | 10 +--
 scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/useragent.py     |  4 +-
 scrapy/dupefilters.py                         | 12 +--
 scrapy/exporters.py                           | 28 +++----
 scrapy/extensions/corestats.py                |  4 +-
 scrapy/extensions/debug.py                    |  6 +-
 scrapy/extensions/feedexport.py               | 72 +++++++++---------
 scrapy/extensions/httpcache.py                | 26 +++----
 scrapy/extensions/logstats.py                 |  6 +-
 scrapy/extensions/periodic_log.py             | 14 ++--
 scrapy/extensions/spiderstate.py              |  6 +-
 scrapy/extensions/statsmailer.py              |  4 +-
 scrapy/extensions/throttle.py                 |  6 +-
 scrapy/http/cookies.py                        | 12 +--
 scrapy/http/headers.py                        | 14 ++--
 scrapy/http/request/__init__.py               | 33 ++++-----
 scrapy/http/request/form.py                   | 32 ++++----
 scrapy/http/request/json_request.py           |  6 +-
 scrapy/http/request/rpc.py                    |  6 +-
 scrapy/http/response/__init__.py              | 66 ++++++++---------
 scrapy/http/response/text.py                  | 73 +++++++++----------
 scrapy/linkextractors/lxmlhtml.py             | 28 +++----
 scrapy/loader/__init__.py                     |  8 +-
 scrapy/logformatter.py                        | 14 ++--
 scrapy/mail.py                                | 22 +++---
 scrapy/middleware.py                          | 12 ++-
 scrapy/pipelines/files.py                     | 72 ++++++++----------
 scrapy/pipelines/images.py                    | 24 +++---
 scrapy/pipelines/media.py                     | 27 ++++---
 scrapy/pqueues.py                             | 18 ++---
 scrapy/resolver.py                            |  4 +-
 scrapy/responsetypes.py                       | 14 ++--
 scrapy/robotstxt.py                           | 30 ++++----
 scrapy/selector/unified.py                    | 16 ++--
 scrapy/settings/__init__.py                   | 38 ++++------
 scrapy/shell.py                               | 34 ++++-----
 scrapy/spidermiddlewares/httperror.py         |  4 +-
 scrapy/spidermiddlewares/referer.py           | 36 +++++----
 scrapy/spiders/__init__.py                    | 10 +--
 scrapy/spiders/crawl.py                       | 38 +++++-----
 scrapy/spiders/feed.py                        |  8 +-
 scrapy/spiders/init.py                        |  4 +-
 scrapy/spiders/sitemap.py                     | 14 ++--
 scrapy/squeues.py                             | 14 ++--
 scrapy/statscollectors.py                     | 30 ++++----
 scrapy/utils/asyncgen.py                      |  8 +-
 scrapy/utils/conf.py                          | 12 +--
 scrapy/utils/console.py                       |  8 +-
 scrapy/utils/curl.py                          |  6 +-
 scrapy/utils/datatypes.py                     | 14 ++--
 scrapy/utils/defer.py                         | 16 ++--
 scrapy/utils/deprecate.py                     | 14 ++--
 scrapy/utils/httpobj.py                       |  6 +-
 scrapy/utils/iterators.py                     | 34 ++++-----
 scrapy/utils/job.py                           |  6 +-
 scrapy/utils/log.py                           | 14 ++--
 scrapy/utils/misc.py                          |  6 +-
 scrapy/utils/ossignal.py                      |  2 +
 scrapy/utils/project.py                       |  5 +-
 scrapy/utils/python.py                        | 22 +++---
 scrapy/utils/reactor.py                       |  8 +-
 scrapy/utils/request.py                       | 14 ++--
 scrapy/utils/response.py                      | 12 +--
 scrapy/utils/sitemap.py                       |  6 +-
 scrapy/utils/spider.py                        | 14 ++--
 scrapy/utils/ssl.py                           |  4 +-
 scrapy/utils/template.py                      |  4 +-
 scrapy/utils/test.py                          |  8 +-
 scrapy/utils/testproc.py                      |  8 +-
 scrapy/utils/url.py                           |  4 +-
 .../CrawlerProcess/asyncio_deferred_signal.py |  5 +-
 tests/spiders.py                              | 13 ++--
 tests/test_commands.py                        |  8 +-
 tests/test_downloader_handlers.py             |  5 +-
 tests/test_feedexport.py                      |  4 +-
 tests/test_linkextractors.py                  |  5 +-
 tests/test_loader.py                          |  5 +-
 tests/test_pipeline_crawl.py                  |  7 +-
 tests/test_pipeline_images.py                 |  5 +-
 tests/test_pipeline_media.py                  |  4 +-
 tests/test_scheduler.py                       |  7 +-
 tests/test_scheduler_base.py                  |  5 +-
 tests/test_spidermiddleware.py                | 17 +++--
 tests/test_spidermiddleware_referer.py        | 26 ++++---
 tests/test_utils_request.py                   | 13 ++--
 122 files changed, 947 insertions(+), 981 deletions(-)

diff --git a/.pre-commit-config.yaml b/.pre-commit-config.yaml
index 75529be05..fbd710f6f 100644
--- a/.pre-commit-config.yaml
+++ b/.pre-commit-config.yaml
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ repos:
     additional_dependencies:
     - black==24.4.2
 - repo: https://github.com/asottile/pyupgrade
-  rev: v3.16.0
+  rev: v3.18.0
   hooks:
   - id: pyupgrade
-    args: [--py39-plus, --keep-runtime-typing]
+    args: [--py39-plus]
diff --git a/scrapy/cmdline.py b/scrapy/cmdline.py
index b820eb7f9..b6f19a37f 100644
--- a/scrapy/cmdline.py
+++ b/scrapy/cmdline.py
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ import inspect
 import os
 import sys
 from importlib.metadata import entry_points
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Optional
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 
 import scrapy
 from scrapy.commands import BaseRunSpiderCommand, ScrapyCommand, ScrapyHelpFormatter
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ if TYPE_CHECKING:
 class ScrapyArgumentParser(argparse.ArgumentParser):
     def _parse_optional(
         self, arg_string: str
-    ) -> Optional[tuple[Optional[argparse.Action], str, Optional[str]]]:
+    ) -> tuple[argparse.Action | None, str, str | None] | None:
         # if starts with -: it means that is a parameter not a argument
         if arg_string[:2] == "-:":
             return None
@@ -89,7 +89,7 @@ def _get_commands_dict(
     return cmds
 
 
-def _pop_command_name(argv: list[str]) -> Optional[str]:
+def _pop_command_name(argv: list[str]) -> str | None:
     i = 0
     for arg in argv[1:]:
         if not arg.startswith("-"):
@@ -147,9 +147,7 @@ def _run_print_help(
         sys.exit(2)
 
 
-def execute(
-    argv: Optional[list[str]] = None, settings: Optional[Settings] = None
-) -> None:
+def execute(argv: list[str] | None = None, settings: Settings | None = None) -> None:
     if argv is None:
         argv = sys.argv
 
diff --git a/scrapy/commands/__init__.py b/scrapy/commands/__init__.py
index a94db90b1..eccbef040 100644
--- a/scrapy/commands/__init__.py
+++ b/scrapy/commands/__init__.py
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ import argparse
 import builtins
 import os
 from pathlib import Path
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any
 
 from twisted.python import failure
 
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ if TYPE_CHECKING:
 
 class ScrapyCommand:
     requires_project: bool = False
-    crawler_process: Optional[CrawlerProcess] = None
+    crawler_process: CrawlerProcess | None = None
 
     # default settings to be used for this command instead of global defaults
     default_settings: dict[str, Any] = {}
@@ -195,7 +195,7 @@ class ScrapyHelpFormatter(argparse.HelpFormatter):
         prog: str,
         indent_increment: int = 2,
         max_help_position: int = 24,
-        width: Optional[int] = None,
+        width: int | None = None,
     ):
         super().__init__(
             prog,
diff --git a/scrapy/commands/genspider.py b/scrapy/commands/genspider.py
index 2ac281212..b286e703e 100644
--- a/scrapy/commands/genspider.py
+++ b/scrapy/commands/genspider.py
@@ -1,10 +1,12 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import argparse
 import os
 import shutil
 import string
 from importlib import import_module
 from pathlib import Path
-from typing import Any, Optional, Union, cast
+from typing import Any, cast
 from urllib.parse import urlparse
 
 import scrapy
@@ -140,7 +142,7 @@ class Command(ScrapyCommand):
         name: str,
         url: str,
         template_name: str,
-        template_file: Union[str, os.PathLike],
+        template_file: str | os.PathLike,
     ) -> None:
         """Generate the spider module, based on the given template"""
         tvars = self._generate_template_variables(module, name, url, template_name)
@@ -161,7 +163,7 @@ class Command(ScrapyCommand):
         if spiders_module:
             print(f"in module:\n  {spiders_module.__name__}.{module}")
 
-    def _find_template(self, template: str) -> Optional[Path]:
+    def _find_template(self, template: str) -> Path | None:
         template_file = Path(self.templates_dir, f"{template}.tmpl")
         if template_file.exists():
             return template_file
diff --git a/scrapy/commands/parse.py b/scrapy/commands/parse.py
index ff2bb8ab9..2059dcf75 100644
--- a/scrapy/commands/parse.py
+++ b/scrapy/commands/parse.py
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ import functools
 import inspect
 import json
 import logging
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, TypeVar, Union, overload
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, TypeVar, overload
 
 from itemadapter import ItemAdapter, is_item
 from twisted.internet.defer import Deferred, maybeDeferred
@@ -38,10 +38,10 @@ _T = TypeVar("_T")
 class Command(BaseRunSpiderCommand):
     requires_project = True
 
-    spider: Optional[Spider] = None
+    spider: Spider | None = None
     items: dict[int, list[Any]] = {}
     requests: dict[int, list[Request]] = {}
-    spidercls: Optional[type[Spider]]
+    spidercls: type[Spider] | None
 
     first_response = None
 
@@ -137,13 +137,13 @@ class Command(BaseRunSpiderCommand):
 
     @overload
     def iterate_spider_output(
-        self, result: Union[AsyncGenerator[_T, None], Coroutine[Any, Any, _T]]
+        self, result: AsyncGenerator[_T] | Coroutine[Any, Any, _T]
     ) -> Deferred[_T]: ...
 
     @overload
     def iterate_spider_output(self, result: _T) -> Iterable[Any]: ...
 
-    def iterate_spider_output(self, result: Any) -> Union[Iterable[Any], Deferred[Any]]:
+    def iterate_spider_output(self, result: Any) -> Iterable[Any] | Deferred[Any]:
         if inspect.isasyncgen(result):
             d = deferred_from_coro(
                 collect_asyncgen(aiter_errback(result, self.handle_exception))
@@ -164,7 +164,7 @@ class Command(BaseRunSpiderCommand):
         old_reqs = self.requests.get(lvl, [])
         self.requests[lvl] = old_reqs + new_reqs
 
-    def print_items(self, lvl: Optional[int] = None, colour: bool = True) -> None:
+    def print_items(self, lvl: int | None = None, colour: bool = True) -> None:
         if lvl is None:
             items = [item for lst in self.items.values() for item in lst]
         else:
@@ -173,7 +173,7 @@ class Command(BaseRunSpiderCommand):
         print("# Scraped Items ", "-" * 60)
         display.pprint([ItemAdapter(x).asdict() for x in items], colorize=colour)
 
-    def print_requests(self, lvl: Optional[int] = None, colour: bool = True) -> None:
+    def print_requests(self, lvl: int | None = None, colour: bool = True) -> None:
         if lvl is None:
             if self.requests:
                 requests = self.requests[max(self.requests)]
@@ -222,7 +222,7 @@ class Command(BaseRunSpiderCommand):
         self,
         response: Response,
         callback: CallbackT,
-        cb_kwargs: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
+        cb_kwargs: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
     ) -> Deferred[Any]:
         cb_kwargs = cb_kwargs or {}
         d = maybeDeferred(self.iterate_spider_output, callback(response, **cb_kwargs))
@@ -230,7 +230,7 @@ class Command(BaseRunSpiderCommand):
 
     def get_callback_from_rules(
         self, spider: Spider, response: Response
-    ) -> Union[CallbackT, str, None]:
+    ) -> CallbackT | str | None:
         if getattr(spider, "rules", None):
             for rule in spider.rules:  # type: ignore[attr-defined]
                 if rule.link_extractor.matches(response.url):
@@ -303,9 +303,9 @@ class Command(BaseRunSpiderCommand):
         *,
         spider: Spider,
         opts: argparse.Namespace,
-        response: Optional[Response] = None,
+        response: Response | None = None,
     ) -> CallbackT:
-        cb: Union[str, CallbackT, None] = None
+        cb: str | CallbackT | None = None
         if response:
             cb = response.meta["_callback"]
         if not cb:
diff --git a/scrapy/commands/runspider.py b/scrapy/commands/runspider.py
index 14d58f311..7ec56899c 100644
--- a/scrapy/commands/runspider.py
+++ b/scrapy/commands/runspider.py
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ import argparse
 import sys
 from importlib import import_module
 from pathlib import Path
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 
 from scrapy.commands import BaseRunSpiderCommand
 from scrapy.exceptions import UsageError
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ if TYPE_CHECKING:
     from types import ModuleType
 
 
-def _import_file(filepath: Union[str, PathLike[str]]) -> ModuleType:
+def _import_file(filepath: str | PathLike[str]) -> ModuleType:
     abspath = Path(filepath).resolve()
     if abspath.suffix not in (".py", ".pyw"):
         raise ValueError(f"Not a Python source file: {abspath}")
diff --git a/scrapy/commands/startproject.py b/scrapy/commands/startproject.py
index f7052cd18..f54c02369 100644
--- a/scrapy/commands/startproject.py
+++ b/scrapy/commands/startproject.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import argparse
 import os
 import re
@@ -6,7 +8,6 @@ from importlib.util import find_spec
 from pathlib import Path
 from shutil import copy2, copystat, ignore_patterns, move
 from stat import S_IWUSR as OWNER_WRITE_PERMISSION
-from typing import Union
 
 import scrapy
 from scrapy.commands import ScrapyCommand
@@ -24,7 +25,7 @@ TEMPLATES_TO_RENDER: tuple[tuple[str, ...], ...] = (
 IGNORE = ignore_patterns("*.pyc", "__pycache__", ".svn")
 
 
-def _make_writable(path: Union[str, os.PathLike]) -> None:
+def _make_writable(path: str | os.PathLike) -> None:
     current_permissions = os.stat(path).st_mode
     os.chmod(path, current_permissions | OWNER_WRITE_PERMISSION)
 
diff --git a/scrapy/contracts/__init__.py b/scrapy/contracts/__init__.py
index ffe5053de..c20c02ca6 100644
--- a/scrapy/contracts/__init__.py
+++ b/scrapy/contracts/__init__.py
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ from collections.abc import AsyncGenerator, Iterable
 from functools import wraps
 from inspect import getmembers
 from types import CoroutineType
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, cast
 from unittest import TestCase, TestResult
 
 from scrapy.http import Request, Response
@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ if TYPE_CHECKING:
 class Contract:
     """Abstract class for contracts"""
 
-    request_cls: Optional[type[Request]] = None
+    request_cls: type[Request] | None = None
     name: str
 
     def __init__(self, method: Callable, *args: Any):
@@ -126,10 +126,8 @@ class ContractsManager:
 
         return contracts
 
-    def from_spider(
-        self, spider: Spider, results: TestResult
-    ) -> list[Optional[Request]]:
-        requests: list[Optional[Request]] = []
+    def from_spider(self, spider: Spider, results: TestResult) -> list[Request | None]:
+        requests: list[Request | None] = []
         for method in self.tested_methods_from_spidercls(type(spider)):
             bound_method = spider.__getattribute__(method)
             try:
@@ -140,7 +138,7 @@ class ContractsManager:
 
         return requests
 
-    def from_method(self, method: Callable, results: TestResult) -> Optional[Request]:
+    def from_method(self, method: Callable, results: TestResult) -> Request | None:
         contracts = self.extract_contracts(method)
         if contracts:
             request_cls = Request
diff --git a/scrapy/contracts/default.py b/scrapy/contracts/default.py
index 87170d3c1..6f357ba20 100644
--- a/scrapy/contracts/default.py
+++ b/scrapy/contracts/default.py
@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import json
-from typing import Any, Callable, Optional
+from typing import Any, Callable
 
 from itemadapter import ItemAdapter, is_item
 
@@ -63,7 +65,7 @@ class ReturnsContract(Contract):
     """
 
     name = "returns"
-    object_type_verifiers: dict[Optional[str], Callable[[Any], bool]] = {
+    object_type_verifiers: dict[str | None, Callable[[Any], bool]] = {
         "request": lambda x: isinstance(x, Request),
         "requests": lambda x: isinstance(x, Request),
         "item": is_item,
diff --git a/scrapy/core/downloader/__init__.py b/scrapy/core/downloader/__init__.py
index 77d57a8d8..1cc0422b7 100644
--- a/scrapy/core/downloader/__init__.py
+++ b/scrapy/core/downloader/__init__.py
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ import warnings
 from collections import deque
 from datetime import datetime
 from time import time
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, TypeVar, Union, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, TypeVar, cast
 
 from twisted.internet import task
 from twisted.internet.defer import Deferred
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ class Slot:
         delay: float,
         randomize_delay: bool,
         *,
-        throttle: Optional[bool] = None,
+        throttle: bool | None = None,
     ):
         self.concurrency: int = concurrency
         self.delay: float = delay
@@ -119,15 +119,13 @@ class Downloader:
             "DOWNLOAD_SLOTS", {}
         )
 
-    def fetch(
-        self, request: Request, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Deferred[Union[Response, Request]]:
+    def fetch(self, request: Request, spider: Spider) -> Deferred[Response | Request]:
         def _deactivate(response: _T) -> _T:
             self.active.remove(request)
             return response
 
         self.active.add(request)
-        dfd: Deferred[Union[Response, Request]] = self.middleware.download(
+        dfd: Deferred[Response | Request] = self.middleware.download(
             self._enqueue_request, request, spider
         )
         return dfd.addBoth(_deactivate)
@@ -164,7 +162,7 @@ class Downloader:
 
         return key
 
-    def _get_slot_key(self, request: Request, spider: Optional[Spider]) -> str:
+    def _get_slot_key(self, request: Request, spider: Spider | None) -> str:
         warnings.warn(
             "Use of this protected method is deprecated. Consider using its corresponding public method get_slot_key() instead.",
             ScrapyDeprecationWarning,
diff --git a/scrapy/core/downloader/contextfactory.py b/scrapy/core/downloader/contextfactory.py
index ba20c3c2c..f80f832a7 100644
--- a/scrapy/core/downloader/contextfactory.py
+++ b/scrapy/core/downloader/contextfactory.py
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 import warnings
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any
 
 from OpenSSL import SSL
 from twisted.internet._sslverify import _setAcceptableProtocols
@@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ class ScrapyClientContextFactory(BrowserLikePolicyForHTTPS):
         self,
         method: int = SSL.SSLv23_METHOD,
         tls_verbose_logging: bool = False,
-        tls_ciphers: Optional[str] = None,
+        tls_ciphers: str | None = None,
         *args: Any,
         **kwargs: Any,
     ):
@@ -73,7 +73,7 @@ class ScrapyClientContextFactory(BrowserLikePolicyForHTTPS):
         tls_verbose_logging: bool = settings.getbool(
             "DOWNLOADER_CLIENT_TLS_VERBOSE_LOGGING"
         )
-        tls_ciphers: Optional[str] = settings["DOWNLOADER_CLIENT_TLS_CIPHERS"]
+        tls_ciphers: str | None = settings["DOWNLOADER_CLIENT_TLS_CIPHERS"]
         return cls(  # type: ignore[misc]
             method=method,
             tls_verbose_logging=tls_verbose_logging,
diff --git a/scrapy/core/downloader/handlers/__init__.py b/scrapy/core/downloader/handlers/__init__.py
index c39e480f1..218f44bbb 100644
--- a/scrapy/core/downloader/handlers/__init__.py
+++ b/scrapy/core/downloader/handlers/__init__.py
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 
 import logging
 from collections.abc import Callable
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, Protocol, Union, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Protocol, cast
 
 from twisted.internet import defer
 
@@ -35,16 +35,16 @@ class DownloadHandlerProtocol(Protocol):
 class DownloadHandlers:
     def __init__(self, crawler: Crawler):
         self._crawler: Crawler = crawler
-        self._schemes: dict[str, Union[str, Callable[..., Any]]] = (
+        self._schemes: dict[str, str | Callable[..., Any]] = (
             {}
         )  # stores acceptable schemes on instancing
         self._handlers: dict[str, DownloadHandlerProtocol] = (
             {}
         )  # stores instanced handlers for schemes
         self._notconfigured: dict[str, str] = {}  # remembers failed handlers
-        handlers: dict[str, Union[str, Callable[..., Any]]] = without_none_values(
+        handlers: dict[str, str | Callable[..., Any]] = without_none_values(
             cast(
-                dict[str, Union[str, Callable[..., Any]]],
+                "dict[str, str | Callable[..., Any]]",
                 crawler.settings.getwithbase("DOWNLOAD_HANDLERS"),
             )
         )
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ class DownloadHandlers:
 
         crawler.signals.connect(self._close, signals.engine_stopped)
 
-    def _get_handler(self, scheme: str) -> Optional[DownloadHandlerProtocol]:
+    def _get_handler(self, scheme: str) -> DownloadHandlerProtocol | None:
         """Lazy-load the downloadhandler for a scheme
         only on the first request for that scheme.
         """
@@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ class DownloadHandlers:
 
     def _load_handler(
         self, scheme: str, skip_lazy: bool = False
-    ) -> Optional[DownloadHandlerProtocol]:
+    ) -> DownloadHandlerProtocol | None:
         path = self._schemes[scheme]
         try:
             dhcls: type[DownloadHandlerProtocol] = load_object(path)
diff --git a/scrapy/core/downloader/handlers/ftp.py b/scrapy/core/downloader/handlers/ftp.py
index bc06c7ef4..70a769771 100644
--- a/scrapy/core/downloader/handlers/ftp.py
+++ b/scrapy/core/downloader/handlers/ftp.py
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 
 import re
 from io import BytesIO
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, BinaryIO, Optional
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, BinaryIO
 from urllib.parse import unquote
 
 from twisted.internet.protocol import ClientCreator, Protocol
@@ -56,8 +56,8 @@ if TYPE_CHECKING:
 
 
 class ReceivedDataProtocol(Protocol):
-    def __init__(self, filename: Optional[str] = None):
-        self.__filename: Optional[str] = filename
+    def __init__(self, filename: str | None = None):
+        self.__filename: str | None = filename
         self.body: BinaryIO = open(filename, "wb") if filename else BytesIO()
         self.size: int = 0
 
@@ -66,7 +66,7 @@ class ReceivedDataProtocol(Protocol):
         self.size += len(data)
 
     @property
-    def filename(self) -> Optional[str]:
+    def filename(self) -> str | None:
         return self.__filename
 
     def close(self) -> None:
diff --git a/scrapy/core/downloader/handlers/http11.py b/scrapy/core/downloader/handlers/http11.py
index f96dc7c98..bd3200e9f 100644
--- a/scrapy/core/downloader/handlers/http11.py
+++ b/scrapy/core/downloader/handlers/http11.py
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ import re
 from contextlib import suppress
 from io import BytesIO
 from time import time
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, TypedDict, TypeVar, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, TypedDict, TypeVar
 from urllib.parse import urldefrag, urlunparse
 
 from twisted.internet import ssl
@@ -52,10 +52,10 @@ _T = TypeVar("_T")
 class _ResultT(TypedDict):
     txresponse: TxResponse
     body: bytes
-    flags: Optional[list[str]]
-    certificate: Optional[ssl.Certificate]
-    ip_address: Union[ipaddress.IPv4Address, ipaddress.IPv6Address, None]
-    failure: NotRequired[Optional[Failure]]
+    flags: list[str] | None
+    certificate: ssl.Certificate | None
+    ip_address: ipaddress.IPv4Address | ipaddress.IPv6Address | None
+    failure: NotRequired[Failure | None]
 
 
 class HTTP11DownloadHandler:
@@ -143,10 +143,10 @@ class TunnelingTCP4ClientEndpoint(TCP4ClientEndpoint):
         reactor: ReactorBase,
         host: str,
         port: int,
-        proxyConf: tuple[str, int, Optional[bytes]],
+        proxyConf: tuple[str, int, bytes | None],
         contextFactory: IPolicyForHTTPS,
         timeout: float = 30,
-        bindAddress: Optional[tuple[str, int]] = None,
+        bindAddress: tuple[str, int] | None = None,
     ):
         proxyHost, proxyPort, self._proxyAuthHeader = proxyConf
         super().__init__(reactor, proxyHost, proxyPort, timeout, bindAddress)
@@ -220,7 +220,7 @@ class TunnelingTCP4ClientEndpoint(TCP4ClientEndpoint):
 
 
 def tunnel_request_data(
-    host: str, port: int, proxy_auth_header: Optional[bytes] = None
+    host: str, port: int, proxy_auth_header: bytes | None = None
 ) -> bytes:
     r"""
     Return binary content of a CONNECT request.
@@ -254,14 +254,14 @@ class TunnelingAgent(Agent):
         self,
         *,
         reactor: ReactorBase,
-        proxyConf: tuple[str, int, Optional[bytes]],
+        proxyConf: tuple[str, int, bytes | None],
         contextFactory: IPolicyForHTTPS,
-        connectTimeout: Optional[float] = None,
-        bindAddress: Optional[bytes] = None,
-        pool: Optional[HTTPConnectionPool] = None,
+        connectTimeout: float | None = None,
+        bindAddress: bytes | None = None,
+        pool: HTTPConnectionPool | None = None,
     ):
         super().__init__(reactor, contextFactory, connectTimeout, bindAddress, pool)
-        self._proxyConf: tuple[str, int, Optional[bytes]] = proxyConf
+        self._proxyConf: tuple[str, int, bytes | None] = proxyConf
         self._contextFactory: IPolicyForHTTPS = contextFactory
 
     def _getEndpoint(self, uri: URI) -> TunnelingTCP4ClientEndpoint:
@@ -281,8 +281,8 @@ class TunnelingAgent(Agent):
         endpoint: TCP4ClientEndpoint,
         method: bytes,
         parsedURI: bytes,
-        headers: Optional[TxHeaders],
-        bodyProducer: Optional[IBodyProducer],
+        headers: TxHeaders | None,
+        bodyProducer: IBodyProducer | None,
         requestPath: bytes,
     ) -> Deferred[TxResponse]:
         # proxy host and port are required for HTTP pool `key`
@@ -305,9 +305,9 @@ class ScrapyProxyAgent(Agent):
         self,
         reactor: ReactorBase,
         proxyURI: bytes,
-        connectTimeout: Optional[float] = None,
-        bindAddress: Optional[bytes] = None,
-        pool: Optional[HTTPConnectionPool] = None,
+        connectTimeout: float | None = None,
+        bindAddress: bytes | None = None,
+        pool: HTTPConnectionPool | None = None,
     ):
         super().__init__(
             reactor=reactor,
@@ -321,8 +321,8 @@ class ScrapyProxyAgent(Agent):
         self,
         method: bytes,
         uri: bytes,
-        headers: Optional[TxHeaders] = None,
-        bodyProducer: Optional[IBodyProducer] = None,
+        headers: TxHeaders | None = None,
+        bodyProducer: IBodyProducer | None = None,
     ) -> Deferred[TxResponse]:
         """
         Issue a new request via the configured proxy.
@@ -350,8 +350,8 @@ class ScrapyAgent:
         *,
         contextFactory: IPolicyForHTTPS,
         connectTimeout: float = 10,
-        bindAddress: Optional[bytes] = None,
-        pool: Optional[HTTPConnectionPool] = None,
+        bindAddress: bytes | None = None,
+        pool: HTTPConnectionPool | None = None,
         maxsize: int = 0,
         warnsize: int = 0,
         fail_on_dataloss: bool = True,
@@ -359,12 +359,12 @@ class ScrapyAgent:
     ):
         self._contextFactory: IPolicyForHTTPS = contextFactory
         self._connectTimeout: float = connectTimeout
-        self._bindAddress: Optional[bytes] = bindAddress
-        self._pool: Optional[HTTPConnectionPool] = pool
+        self._bindAddress: bytes | None = bindAddress
+        self._pool: HTTPConnectionPool | None = pool
         self._maxsize: int = maxsize
         self._warnsize: int = warnsize
         self._fail_on_dataloss: bool = fail_on_dataloss
-        self._txresponse: Optional[TxResponse] = None
+        self._txresponse: TxResponse | None = None
         self._crawler: Crawler = crawler
 
     def _get_agent(self, request: Request, timeout: float) -> Agent:
@@ -462,7 +462,7 @@ class ScrapyAgent:
 
     def _cb_bodyready(
         self, txresponse: TxResponse, request: Request
-    ) -> Union[_ResultT, Deferred[_ResultT]]:
+    ) -> _ResultT | Deferred[_ResultT]:
         headers_received_result = self._crawler.signals.send_catch_log(
             signal=signals.headers_received,
             headers=self._headers_from_twisted_response(txresponse),
@@ -551,7 +551,7 @@ class ScrapyAgent:
 
     def _cb_bodydone(
         self, result: _ResultT, request: Request, url: str
-    ) -> Union[Response, Failure]:
+    ) -> Response | Failure:
         headers = self._headers_from_twisted_response(result["txresponse"])
         respcls = responsetypes.from_args(headers=headers, url=url, body=result["body"])
         try:
@@ -614,14 +614,12 @@ class _ResponseReader(Protocol):
         self._fail_on_dataloss_warned: bool = False
         self._reached_warnsize: bool = False
         self._bytes_received: int = 0
-        self._certificate: Optional[ssl.Certificate] = None
-        self._ip_address: Union[ipaddress.IPv4Address, ipaddress.IPv6Address, None] = (
-            None
-        )
+        self._certificate: ssl.Certificate | None = None
+        self._ip_address: ipaddress.IPv4Address | ipaddress.IPv6Address | None = None
         self._crawler: Crawler = crawler
 
     def _finish_response(
-        self, flags: Optional[list[str]] = None, failure: Optional[Failure] = None
+        self, flags: list[str] | None = None, failure: Failure | None = None
     ) -> None:
         self._finished.callback(
             {
diff --git a/scrapy/core/downloader/handlers/http2.py b/scrapy/core/downloader/handlers/http2.py
index 4722c612d..f0f9ceeb7 100644
--- a/scrapy/core/downloader/handlers/http2.py
+++ b/scrapy/core/downloader/handlers/http2.py
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 from time import time
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Optional
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 from urllib.parse import urldefrag
 
 from twisted.internet.error import TimeoutError
@@ -60,8 +60,8 @@ class ScrapyH2Agent:
         context_factory: IPolicyForHTTPS,
         pool: H2ConnectionPool,
         connect_timeout: int = 10,
-        bind_address: Optional[bytes] = None,
-        crawler: Optional[Crawler] = None,
+        bind_address: bytes | None = None,
+        crawler: Crawler | None = None,
     ) -> None:
         self._context_factory = context_factory
         self._connect_timeout = connect_timeout
@@ -69,7 +69,7 @@ class ScrapyH2Agent:
         self._pool = pool
         self._crawler = crawler
 
-    def _get_agent(self, request: Request, timeout: Optional[float]) -> H2Agent:
+    def _get_agent(self, request: Request, timeout: float | None) -> H2Agent:
         from twisted.internet import reactor
 
         bind_address = request.meta.get("bindaddress") or self._bind_address
diff --git a/scrapy/core/downloader/handlers/s3.py b/scrapy/core/downloader/handlers/s3.py
index fa660c63c..870a26f04 100644
--- a/scrapy/core/downloader/handlers/s3.py
+++ b/scrapy/core/downloader/handlers/s3.py
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 from __future__ import annotations
 
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any
 
 from scrapy.core.downloader.handlers.http import HTTPDownloadHandler
 from scrapy.exceptions import NotConfigured
@@ -26,9 +26,9 @@ class S3DownloadHandler:
         settings: BaseSettings,
         *,
         crawler: Crawler,
-        aws_access_key_id: Optional[str] = None,
-        aws_secret_access_key: Optional[str] = None,
-        aws_session_token: Optional[str] = None,
+        aws_access_key_id: str | None = None,
+        aws_secret_access_key: str | None = None,
+        aws_session_token: str | None = None,
         httpdownloadhandler: type[HTTPDownloadHandler] = HTTPDownloadHandler,
         **kw: Any,
     ):
diff --git a/scrapy/core/downloader/middleware.py b/scrapy/core/downloader/middleware.py
index 00d3bd1b0..60e7adb2f 100644
--- a/scrapy/core/downloader/middleware.py
+++ b/scrapy/core/downloader/middleware.py
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ See documentation in docs/topics/downloader-middleware.rst
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 from collections.abc import Callable
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Union, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, cast
 
 from twisted.internet.defer import Deferred, inlineCallbacks
 
@@ -46,11 +46,11 @@ class DownloaderMiddlewareManager(MiddlewareManager):
         download_func: Callable[[Request, Spider], Deferred[Response]],
         request: Request,
         spider: Spider,
-    ) -> Deferred[Union[Response, Request]]:
+    ) -> Deferred[Response | Request]:
         @inlineCallbacks
         def process_request(
             request: Request,
-        ) -> Generator[Deferred[Any], Any, Union[Response, Request]]:
+        ) -> Generator[Deferred[Any], Any, Response | Request]:
             for method in self.methods["process_request"]:
                 method = cast(Callable, method)
                 response = yield deferred_from_coro(
@@ -69,8 +69,8 @@ class DownloaderMiddlewareManager(MiddlewareManager):
 
         @inlineCallbacks
         def process_response(
-            response: Union[Response, Request]
-        ) -> Generator[Deferred[Any], Any, Union[Response, Request]]:
+            response: Response | Request,
+        ) -> Generator[Deferred[Any], Any, Response | Request]:
             if response is None:
                 raise TypeError("Received None in process_response")
             elif isinstance(response, Request):
@@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ class DownloaderMiddlewareManager(MiddlewareManager):
         @inlineCallbacks
         def process_exception(
             failure: Failure,
-        ) -> Generator[Deferred[Any], Any, Union[Failure, Response, Request]]:
+        ) -> Generator[Deferred[Any], Any, Failure | Response | Request]:
             exception = failure.value
             for method in self.methods["process_exception"]:
                 method = cast(Callable, method)
@@ -111,7 +111,7 @@ class DownloaderMiddlewareManager(MiddlewareManager):
                     return response
             return failure
 
-        deferred: Deferred[Union[Response, Request]] = mustbe_deferred(
+        deferred: Deferred[Response | Request] = mustbe_deferred(
             process_request, request
         )
         deferred.addErrback(process_exception)
diff --git a/scrapy/core/downloader/webclient.py b/scrapy/core/downloader/webclient.py
index 509bda4e4..ee10ae73b 100644
--- a/scrapy/core/downloader/webclient.py
+++ b/scrapy/core/downloader/webclient.py
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 
 import re
 from time import time
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Optional
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 from urllib.parse import ParseResult, urldefrag, urlparse, urlunparse
 
 from twisted.internet import defer
@@ -144,9 +144,9 @@ class ScrapyHTTPClientFactory(ClientFactory):
         # converting to bytes to comply to Twisted interface
         self.url: bytes = to_bytes(self._url, encoding="ascii")
         self.method: bytes = to_bytes(request.method, encoding="ascii")
-        self.body: Optional[bytes] = request.body or None
+        self.body: bytes | None = request.body or None
         self.headers: Headers = Headers(request.headers)
-        self.response_headers: Optional[Headers] = None
+        self.response_headers: Headers | None = None
         self.timeout: float = request.meta.get("download_timeout") or timeout
         self.start_time: float = time()
         self.deferred: defer.Deferred[Response] = defer.Deferred().addCallback(
diff --git a/scrapy/core/engine.py b/scrapy/core/engine.py
index f3d74eccf..d056a00ba 100644
--- a/scrapy/core/engine.py
+++ b/scrapy/core/engine.py
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 
 import logging
 from time import time
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, TypeVar, Union, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, TypeVar, cast
 
 from itemadapter import is_item
 from twisted.internet.defer import Deferred, inlineCallbacks, succeed
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ from twisted.python.failure import Failure
 
 from scrapy import signals
 from scrapy.core.downloader import Downloader
-from scrapy.core.scraper import Scraper
+from scrapy.core.scraper import Scraper, _HandleOutputDeferred
 from scrapy.exceptions import CloseSpider, DontCloseSpider, IgnoreRequest
 from scrapy.http import Request, Response
 from scrapy.logformatter import LogFormatter
@@ -32,7 +32,6 @@ if TYPE_CHECKING:
     from collections.abc import Callable, Generator, Iterable, Iterator
 
     from scrapy.core.scheduler import BaseScheduler
-    from scrapy.core.scraper import _HandleOutputDeferred
     from scrapy.crawler import Crawler
     from scrapy.settings import BaseSettings
     from scrapy.spiders import Spider
@@ -51,9 +50,9 @@ class Slot:
         nextcall: CallLaterOnce[None],
         scheduler: BaseScheduler,
     ) -> None:
-        self.closing: Optional[Deferred[None]] = None
+        self.closing: Deferred[None] | None = None
         self.inprogress: set[Request] = set()
-        self.start_requests: Optional[Iterator[Request]] = iter(start_requests)
+        self.start_requests: Iterator[Request] | None = iter(start_requests)
         self.close_if_idle: bool = close_if_idle
         self.nextcall: CallLaterOnce[None] = nextcall
         self.scheduler: BaseScheduler = scheduler
@@ -84,15 +83,15 @@ class ExecutionEngine:
     def __init__(
         self,
         crawler: Crawler,
-        spider_closed_callback: Callable[[Spider], Optional[Deferred[None]]],
+        spider_closed_callback: Callable[[Spider], Deferred[None] | None],
     ) -> None:
         self.crawler: Crawler = crawler
         self.settings: Settings = crawler.settings
         self.signals: SignalManager = crawler.signals
         assert crawler.logformatter
         self.logformatter: LogFormatter = crawler.logformatter
-        self.slot: Optional[Slot] = None
-        self.spider: Optional[Spider] = None
+        self.slot: Slot | None = None
+        self.spider: Spider | None = None
         self.running: bool = False
         self.paused: bool = False
         self.scheduler_cls: type[BaseScheduler] = self._get_scheduler_class(
@@ -101,10 +100,10 @@ class ExecutionEngine:
         downloader_cls: type[Downloader] = load_object(self.settings["DOWNLOADER"])
         self.downloader: Downloader = downloader_cls(crawler)
         self.scraper: Scraper = Scraper(crawler)
-        self._spider_closed_callback: Callable[[Spider], Optional[Deferred[None]]] = (
+        self._spider_closed_callback: Callable[[Spider], Deferred[None] | None] = (
             spider_closed_callback
         )
-        self.start_time: Optional[float] = None
+        self.start_time: float | None = None
 
     def _get_scheduler_class(self, settings: BaseSettings) -> type[BaseScheduler]:
         from scrapy.core.scheduler import BaseScheduler
@@ -218,7 +217,7 @@ class ExecutionEngine:
             or self.scraper.slot.needs_backout()
         )
 
-    def _next_request_from_scheduler(self) -> Optional[Deferred[None]]:
+    def _next_request_from_scheduler(self) -> Deferred[None] | None:
         assert self.slot is not None  # typing
         assert self.spider is not None  # typing
 
@@ -226,7 +225,7 @@ class ExecutionEngine:
         if request is None:
             return None
 
-        d: Deferred[Union[Response, Request]] = self._download(request)
+        d: Deferred[Response | Request] = self._download(request)
         d.addBoth(self._handle_downloader_output, request)
         d.addErrback(
             lambda f: logger.info(
@@ -260,8 +259,8 @@ class ExecutionEngine:
         return d2
 
     def _handle_downloader_output(
-        self, result: Union[Request, Response, Failure], request: Request
-    ) -> Optional[_HandleOutputDeferred]:
+        self, result: Request | Response | Failure, request: Request
+    ) -> _HandleOutputDeferred | None:
         assert self.spider is not None  # typing
 
         if not isinstance(result, (Request, Response, Failure)):
@@ -323,24 +322,24 @@ class ExecutionEngine:
         """Return a Deferred which fires with a Response as result, only downloader middlewares are applied"""
         if self.spider is None:
             raise RuntimeError(f"No open spider to crawl: {request}")
-        d: Deferred[Union[Response, Request]] = self._download(request)
+        d: Deferred[Response | Request] = self._download(request)
         # Deferred.addBoth() overloads don't seem to support a Union[_T, Deferred[_T]] return type
         d2: Deferred[Response] = d.addBoth(self._downloaded, request)  # type: ignore[call-overload]
         return d2
 
     def _downloaded(
-        self, result: Union[Response, Request, Failure], request: Request
-    ) -> Union[Deferred[Response], Response, Failure]:
+        self, result: Response | Request | Failure, request: Request
+    ) -> Deferred[Response] | Response | Failure:
         assert self.slot is not None  # typing
         self.slot.remove_request(request)
         return self.download(result) if isinstance(result, Request) else result
 
-    def _download(self, request: Request) -> Deferred[Union[Response, Request]]:
+    def _download(self, request: Request) -> Deferred[Response | Request]:
         assert self.slot is not None  # typing
 
         self.slot.add_request(request)
 
-        def _on_success(result: Union[Response, Request]) -> Union[Response, Request]:
+        def _on_success(result: Response | Request) -> Response | Request:
             if not isinstance(result, (Response, Request)):
                 raise TypeError(
                     f"Incorrect type: expected Response or Request, got {type(result)}: {result!r}"
@@ -368,9 +367,7 @@ class ExecutionEngine:
             return _
 
         assert self.spider is not None
-        dwld: Deferred[Union[Response, Request]] = self.downloader.fetch(
-            request, self.spider
-        )
+        dwld: Deferred[Response | Request] = self.downloader.fetch(request, self.spider)
         dwld.addCallback(_on_success)
         dwld.addBoth(_on_complete)
         return dwld
diff --git a/scrapy/core/http2/agent.py b/scrapy/core/http2/agent.py
index b5ff55eb0..45f32daaa 100644
--- a/scrapy/core/http2/agent.py
+++ b/scrapy/core/http2/agent.py
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 from collections import deque
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Optional
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 
 from twisted.internet import defer
 from twisted.internet.defer import Deferred
@@ -121,8 +121,8 @@ class H2Agent:
         reactor: ReactorBase,
         pool: H2ConnectionPool,
         context_factory: BrowserLikePolicyForHTTPS = BrowserLikePolicyForHTTPS(),
-        connect_timeout: Optional[float] = None,
-        bind_address: Optional[bytes] = None,
+        connect_timeout: float | None = None,
+        bind_address: bytes | None = None,
     ) -> None:
         self._reactor = reactor
         self._pool = pool
@@ -165,8 +165,8 @@ class ScrapyProxyH2Agent(H2Agent):
         proxy_uri: URI,
         pool: H2ConnectionPool,
         context_factory: BrowserLikePolicyForHTTPS = BrowserLikePolicyForHTTPS(),
-        connect_timeout: Optional[float] = None,
-        bind_address: Optional[bytes] = None,
+        connect_timeout: float | None = None,
+        bind_address: bytes | None = None,
     ) -> None:
         super().__init__(
             reactor=reactor,
diff --git a/scrapy/core/http2/protocol.py b/scrapy/core/http2/protocol.py
index 618423218..23335b7b2 100644
--- a/scrapy/core/http2/protocol.py
+++ b/scrapy/core/http2/protocol.py
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ import ipaddress
 import itertools
 import logging
 from collections import deque
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any
 
 from h2.config import H2Configuration
 from h2.connection import H2Connection
@@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ class InvalidNegotiatedProtocol(H2Error):
 class RemoteTerminatedConnection(H2Error):
     def __init__(
         self,
-        remote_ip_address: Optional[Union[IPv4Address, IPv6Address]],
+        remote_ip_address: IPv4Address | IPv6Address | None,
         event: ConnectionTerminated,
     ) -> None:
         self.remote_ip_address = remote_ip_address
@@ -74,9 +74,7 @@ class RemoteTerminatedConnection(H2Error):
 
 
 class MethodNotAllowed405(H2Error):
-    def __init__(
-        self, remote_ip_address: Optional[Union[IPv4Address, IPv6Address]]
-    ) -> None:
+    def __init__(self, remote_ip_address: IPv4Address | IPv6Address | None) -> None:
         self.remote_ip_address = remote_ip_address
 
     def __str__(self) -> str:
diff --git a/scrapy/core/http2/stream.py b/scrapy/core/http2/stream.py
index 51ebdf489..a4dc89c18 100644
--- a/scrapy/core/http2/stream.py
+++ b/scrapy/core/http2/stream.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 import logging
 from enum import Enum
 from io import BytesIO
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any
 
 from h2.errors import ErrorCodes
 from h2.exceptions import H2Error, ProtocolError, StreamClosedError
@@ -382,7 +382,7 @@ class Stream:
     def close(
         self,
         reason: StreamCloseReason,
-        errors: Optional[list[BaseException]] = None,
+        errors: list[BaseException] | None = None,
         from_protocol: bool = False,
     ) -> None:
         """Based on the reason sent we will handle each case."""
diff --git a/scrapy/core/scheduler.py b/scrapy/core/scheduler.py
index ced18fc05..bebee1236 100644
--- a/scrapy/core/scheduler.py
+++ b/scrapy/core/scheduler.py
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ import json
 import logging
 from abc import abstractmethod
 from pathlib import Path
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, cast
 
 # working around https://github.com/sphinx-doc/sphinx/issues/10400
 from twisted.internet.defer import Deferred  # noqa: TC002
@@ -73,7 +73,7 @@ class BaseScheduler(metaclass=BaseSchedulerMeta):
         """
         return cls()
 
-    def open(self, spider: Spider) -> Optional[Deferred[None]]:
+    def open(self, spider: Spider) -> Deferred[None] | None:
         """
         Called when the spider is opened by the engine. It receives the spider
         instance as argument and it's useful to execute initialization code.
@@ -83,7 +83,7 @@ class BaseScheduler(metaclass=BaseSchedulerMeta):
         """
         pass
 
-    def close(self, reason: str) -> Optional[Deferred[None]]:
+    def close(self, reason: str) -> Deferred[None] | None:
         """
         Called when the spider is closed by the engine. It receives the reason why the crawl
         finished as argument and it's useful to execute cleaning code.
@@ -115,7 +115,7 @@ class BaseScheduler(metaclass=BaseSchedulerMeta):
         raise NotImplementedError()
 
     @abstractmethod
-    def next_request(self) -> Optional[Request]:
+    def next_request(self) -> Request | None:
         """
         Return the next :class:`~scrapy.http.Request` to be processed, or ``None``
         to indicate that there are no requests to be considered ready at the moment.
@@ -181,22 +181,22 @@ class Scheduler(BaseScheduler):
     def __init__(
         self,
         dupefilter: BaseDupeFilter,
-        jobdir: Optional[str] = None,
-        dqclass: Optional[type[BaseQueue]] = None,
-        mqclass: Optional[type[BaseQueue]] = None,
+        jobdir: str | None = None,
+        dqclass: type[BaseQueue] | None = None,
+        mqclass: type[BaseQueue] | None = None,
         logunser: bool = False,
-        stats: Optional[StatsCollector] = None,
-        pqclass: Optional[type[ScrapyPriorityQueue]] = None,
-        crawler: Optional[Crawler] = None,
+        stats: StatsCollector | None = None,
+        pqclass: type[ScrapyPriorityQueue] | None = None,
+        crawler: Crawler | None = None,
     ):
         self.df: BaseDupeFilter = dupefilter
-        self.dqdir: Optional[str] = self._dqdir(jobdir)
-        self.pqclass: Optional[type[ScrapyPriorityQueue]] = pqclass
-        self.dqclass: Optional[type[BaseQueue]] = dqclass
-        self.mqclass: Optional[type[BaseQueue]] = mqclass
+        self.dqdir: str | None = self._dqdir(jobdir)
+        self.pqclass: type[ScrapyPriorityQueue] | None = pqclass
+        self.dqclass: type[BaseQueue] | None = dqclass
+        self.mqclass: type[BaseQueue] | None = mqclass
         self.logunser: bool = logunser
-        self.stats: Optional[StatsCollector] = stats
-        self.crawler: Optional[Crawler] = crawler
+        self.stats: StatsCollector | None = stats
+        self.crawler: Crawler | None = crawler
 
     @classmethod
     def from_crawler(cls, crawler: Crawler) -> Self:
@@ -218,7 +218,7 @@ class Scheduler(BaseScheduler):
     def has_pending_requests(self) -> bool:
         return len(self) > 0
 
-    def open(self, spider: Spider) -> Optional[Deferred[None]]:
+    def open(self, spider: Spider) -> Deferred[None] | None:
         """
         (1) initialize the memory queue
         (2) initialize the disk queue if the ``jobdir`` attribute is a valid directory
@@ -226,10 +226,10 @@ class Scheduler(BaseScheduler):
         """
         self.spider: Spider = spider
         self.mqs: ScrapyPriorityQueue = self._mq()
-        self.dqs: Optional[ScrapyPriorityQueue] = self._dq() if self.dqdir else None
+        self.dqs: ScrapyPriorityQueue | None = self._dq() if self.dqdir else None
         return self.df.open()
 
-    def close(self, reason: str) -> Optional[Deferred[None]]:
+    def close(self, reason: str) -> Deferred[None] | None:
         """
         (1) dump pending requests to disk if there is a disk queue
         (2) return the result of the dupefilter's ``close`` method
@@ -263,7 +263,7 @@ class Scheduler(BaseScheduler):
         self.stats.inc_value("scheduler/enqueued", spider=self.spider)
         return True
 
-    def next_request(self) -> Optional[Request]:
+    def next_request(self) -> Request | None:
         """
         Return a :class:`~scrapy.http.Request` object from the memory queue,
         falling back to the disk queue if the memory queue is empty.
@@ -272,7 +272,7 @@ class Scheduler(BaseScheduler):
         Increment the appropriate stats, such as: ``scheduler/dequeued``,
         ``scheduler/dequeued/disk``, ``scheduler/dequeued/memory``.
         """
-        request: Optional[Request] = self.mqs.pop()
+        request: Request | None = self.mqs.pop()
         assert self.stats is not None
         if request is not None:
             self.stats.inc_value("scheduler/dequeued/memory", spider=self.spider)
@@ -318,7 +318,7 @@ class Scheduler(BaseScheduler):
     def _mqpush(self, request: Request) -> None:
         self.mqs.push(request)
 
-    def _dqpop(self) -> Optional[Request]:
+    def _dqpop(self) -> Request | None:
         if self.dqs is not None:
             return self.dqs.pop()
         return None
@@ -355,7 +355,7 @@ class Scheduler(BaseScheduler):
             )
         return q
 
-    def _dqdir(self, jobdir: Optional[str]) -> Optional[str]:
+    def _dqdir(self, jobdir: str | None) -> str | None:
         """Return a folder name to keep disk queue state at"""
         if jobdir:
             dqdir = Path(jobdir, "requests.queue")
diff --git a/scrapy/core/scraper.py b/scrapy/core/scraper.py
index 71a0d6aeb..83dad0c0b 100644
--- a/scrapy/core/scraper.py
+++ b/scrapy/core/scraper.py
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 import logging
 from collections import deque
 from collections.abc import AsyncIterable, Iterator
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, TypeVar, Union, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, TypeVar, Union, cast
 
 from itemadapter import is_item
 from twisted.internet.defer import Deferred, inlineCallbacks
@@ -42,11 +42,8 @@ logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
 
 _T = TypeVar("_T")
 _ParallelResult = list[tuple[bool, Iterator[Any]]]
-
-if TYPE_CHECKING:
-    # parameterized Deferreds require Twisted 21.7.0
-    _HandleOutputDeferred = Deferred[Union[_ParallelResult, None]]
-    QueueTuple = tuple[Union[Response, Failure], Request, _HandleOutputDeferred]
+_HandleOutputDeferred = Deferred[Union[_ParallelResult, None]]
+QueueTuple = tuple[Union[Response, Failure], Request, _HandleOutputDeferred]
 
 
 class Slot:
@@ -60,10 +57,10 @@ class Slot:
         self.active: set[Request] = set()
         self.active_size: int = 0
         self.itemproc_size: int = 0
-        self.closing: Optional[Deferred[Spider]] = None
+        self.closing: Deferred[Spider] | None = None
 
     def add_response_request(
-        self, result: Union[Response, Failure], request: Request
+        self, result: Response | Failure, request: Request
     ) -> _HandleOutputDeferred:
         deferred: _HandleOutputDeferred = Deferred()
         self.queue.append((result, request, deferred))
@@ -78,9 +75,7 @@ class Slot:
         self.active.add(request)
         return response, request, deferred
 
-    def finish_response(
-        self, result: Union[Response, Failure], request: Request
-    ) -> None:
+    def finish_response(self, result: Response | Failure, request: Request) -> None:
         self.active.remove(request)
         if isinstance(result, Response):
             self.active_size -= max(len(result.body), self.MIN_RESPONSE_SIZE)
@@ -96,7 +91,7 @@ class Slot:
 
 class Scraper:
     def __init__(self, crawler: Crawler) -> None:
-        self.slot: Optional[Slot] = None
+        self.slot: Slot | None = None
         self.spidermw: SpiderMiddlewareManager = SpiderMiddlewareManager.from_crawler(
             crawler
         )
@@ -135,7 +130,7 @@ class Scraper:
             self.slot.closing.callback(spider)
 
     def enqueue_scrape(
-        self, result: Union[Response, Failure], request: Request, spider: Spider
+        self, result: Response | Failure, request: Request, spider: Spider
     ) -> _HandleOutputDeferred:
         if self.slot is None:
             raise RuntimeError("Scraper slot not assigned")
@@ -167,7 +162,7 @@ class Scraper:
             self._scrape(response, request, spider).chainDeferred(deferred)
 
     def _scrape(
-        self, result: Union[Response, Failure], request: Request, spider: Spider
+        self, result: Response | Failure, request: Request, spider: Spider
     ) -> _HandleOutputDeferred:
         """
         Handle the downloaded response or failure through the spider callback/errback
@@ -176,7 +171,7 @@ class Scraper:
             raise TypeError(
                 f"Incorrect type: expected Response or Failure, got {type(result)}: {result!r}"
             )
-        dfd: Deferred[Union[Iterable[Any], AsyncIterable[Any]]] = self._scrape2(
+        dfd: Deferred[Iterable[Any] | AsyncIterable[Any]] = self._scrape2(
             result, request, spider
         )  # returns spider's processed output
         dfd.addErrback(self.handle_spider_error, request, result, spider)
@@ -186,8 +181,8 @@ class Scraper:
         return dfd2
 
     def _scrape2(
-        self, result: Union[Response, Failure], request: Request, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Deferred[Union[Iterable[Any], AsyncIterable[Any]]]:
+        self, result: Response | Failure, request: Request, spider: Spider
+    ) -> Deferred[Iterable[Any] | AsyncIterable[Any]]:
         """
         Handle the different cases of request's result been a Response or a Failure
         """
@@ -202,8 +197,8 @@ class Scraper:
         return dfd
 
     def call_spider(
-        self, result: Union[Response, Failure], request: Request, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Deferred[Union[Iterable[Any], AsyncIterable[Any]]]:
+        self, result: Response | Failure, request: Request, spider: Spider
+    ) -> Deferred[Iterable[Any] | AsyncIterable[Any]]:
         dfd: Deferred[Any]
         if isinstance(result, Response):
             if getattr(result, "request", None) is None:
@@ -222,7 +217,7 @@ class Scraper:
             if request.errback:
                 warn_on_generator_with_return_value(spider, request.errback)
                 dfd.addErrback(request.errback)
-        dfd2: Deferred[Union[Iterable[Any], AsyncIterable[Any]]] = dfd.addCallback(
+        dfd2: Deferred[Iterable[Any] | AsyncIterable[Any]] = dfd.addCallback(
             iterate_spider_output
         )
         return dfd2
@@ -231,7 +226,7 @@ class Scraper:
         self,
         _failure: Failure,
         request: Request,
-        response: Union[Response, Failure],
+        response: Response | Failure,
         spider: Spider,
     ) -> None:
         exc = _failure.value
@@ -258,14 +253,14 @@ class Scraper:
 
     def handle_spider_output(
         self,
-        result: Union[Iterable[_T], AsyncIterable[_T]],
+        result: Iterable[_T] | AsyncIterable[_T],
         request: Request,
         response: Response,
         spider: Spider,
     ) -> _HandleOutputDeferred:
         if not result:
             return defer_succeed(None)
-        it: Union[Iterable[_T], AsyncIterable[_T]]
+        it: Iterable[_T] | AsyncIterable[_T]
         dfd: Deferred[_ParallelResult]
         if isinstance(result, AsyncIterable):
             it = aiter_errback(
@@ -296,7 +291,7 @@ class Scraper:
 
     def _process_spidermw_output(
         self, output: Any, request: Request, response: Response, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Optional[Deferred[Any]]:
+    ) -> Deferred[Any] | None:
         """Process each Request/Item (given in the output parameter) returned
         from the given spider
         """
@@ -316,9 +311,7 @@ class Scraper:
             )
         return None
 
-    def start_itemproc(
-        self, item: Any, *, response: Optional[Response]
-    ) -> Deferred[Any]:
+    def start_itemproc(self, item: Any, *, response: Response | None) -> Deferred[Any]:
         """Send *item* to the item pipelines for processing.
 
         *response* is the source of the item data. If the item does not come
@@ -337,7 +330,7 @@ class Scraper:
         download_failure: Failure,
         request: Request,
         spider: Spider,
-    ) -> Union[Failure, None]:
+    ) -> Failure | None:
         """Log and silence errors that come from the engine (typically download
         errors that got propagated thru here).
 
@@ -371,7 +364,7 @@ class Scraper:
         return None
 
     def _itemproc_finished(
-        self, output: Any, item: Any, response: Optional[Response], spider: Spider
+        self, output: Any, item: Any, response: Response | None, spider: Spider
     ) -> Deferred[Any]:
         """ItemProcessor finished for the given ``item`` and returned ``output``"""
         assert self.slot is not None  # typing
diff --git a/scrapy/core/spidermw.py b/scrapy/core/spidermw.py
index 3c8513042..1edfe1c51 100644
--- a/scrapy/core/spidermw.py
+++ b/scrapy/core/spidermw.py
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ import logging
 from collections.abc import AsyncIterable, Callable, Iterable
 from inspect import isasyncgenfunction, iscoroutine
 from itertools import islice
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, TypeVar, Union, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, TypeVar, Union, cast
 
 from twisted.internet.defer import Deferred, inlineCallbacks
 from twisted.python.failure import Failure
@@ -76,7 +76,7 @@ class SpiderMiddlewareManager(MiddlewareManager):
         response: Response,
         request: Request,
         spider: Spider,
-    ) -> Union[Iterable[_T], AsyncIterable[_T]]:
+    ) -> Iterable[_T] | AsyncIterable[_T]:
         for method in self.methods["process_spider_input"]:
             method = cast(Callable, method)
             try:
@@ -97,10 +97,10 @@ class SpiderMiddlewareManager(MiddlewareManager):
         self,
         response: Response,
         spider: Spider,
-        iterable: Union[Iterable[_T], AsyncIterable[_T]],
+        iterable: Iterable[_T] | AsyncIterable[_T],
         exception_processor_index: int,
-        recover_to: Union[MutableChain[_T], MutableAsyncChain[_T]],
-    ) -> Union[Iterable[_T], AsyncIterable[_T]]:
+        recover_to: MutableChain[_T] | MutableAsyncChain[_T],
+    ) -> Iterable[_T] | AsyncIterable[_T]:
         def process_sync(iterable: Iterable[_T]) -> Iterable[_T]:
             try:
                 yield from iterable
@@ -142,7 +142,7 @@ class SpiderMiddlewareManager(MiddlewareManager):
         spider: Spider,
         _failure: Failure,
         start_index: int = 0,
-    ) -> Union[Failure, MutableChain[_T], MutableAsyncChain[_T]]:
+    ) -> Failure | MutableChain[_T] | MutableAsyncChain[_T]:
         exception = _failure.value
         # don't handle _InvalidOutput exception
         if isinstance(exception, _InvalidOutput):
@@ -158,7 +158,7 @@ class SpiderMiddlewareManager(MiddlewareManager):
             if _isiterable(result):
                 # stop exception handling by handing control over to the
                 # process_spider_output chain if an iterable has been returned
-                dfd: Deferred[Union[MutableChain[_T], MutableAsyncChain[_T]]] = (
+                dfd: Deferred[MutableChain[_T] | MutableAsyncChain[_T]] = (
                     self._process_spider_output(
                         response, spider, result, method_index + 1
                     )
@@ -192,12 +192,12 @@ class SpiderMiddlewareManager(MiddlewareManager):
         self,
         response: Response,
         spider: Spider,
-        result: Union[Iterable[_T], AsyncIterable[_T]],
+        result: Iterable[_T] | AsyncIterable[_T],
         start_index: int = 0,
-    ) -> Generator[Deferred[Any], Any, Union[MutableChain[_T], MutableAsyncChain[_T]]]:
+    ) -> Generator[Deferred[Any], Any, MutableChain[_T] | MutableAsyncChain[_T]]:
         # items in this iterable do not need to go through the process_spider_output
         # chain, they went through it already from the process_spider_exception method
-        recovered: Union[MutableChain[_T], MutableAsyncChain[_T]]
+        recovered: MutableChain[_T] | MutableAsyncChain[_T]
         last_result_is_async = isinstance(result, AsyncIterable)
         if last_result_is_async:
             recovered = MutableAsyncChain()
@@ -248,10 +248,10 @@ class SpiderMiddlewareManager(MiddlewareManager):
                 # might fail directly if the output value is not a generator
                 result = method(response=response, result=result, spider=spider)
             except Exception as ex:
-                exception_result: Union[
-                    Failure, MutableChain[_T], MutableAsyncChain[_T]
-                ] = self._process_spider_exception(
-                    response, spider, Failure(ex), method_index + 1
+                exception_result: Failure | MutableChain[_T] | MutableAsyncChain[_T] = (
+                    self._process_spider_exception(
+                        response, spider, Failure(ex), method_index + 1
+                    )
                 )
                 if isinstance(exception_result, Failure):
                     raise
@@ -283,9 +283,9 @@ class SpiderMiddlewareManager(MiddlewareManager):
         self,
         response: Response,
         spider: Spider,
-        result: Union[Iterable[_T], AsyncIterable[_T]],
-    ) -> Union[MutableChain[_T], MutableAsyncChain[_T]]:
-        recovered: Union[MutableChain[_T], MutableAsyncChain[_T]]
+        result: Iterable[_T] | AsyncIterable[_T],
+    ) -> MutableChain[_T] | MutableAsyncChain[_T]:
+        recovered: MutableChain[_T] | MutableAsyncChain[_T]
         if isinstance(result, AsyncIterable):
             recovered = MutableAsyncChain()
         else:
@@ -293,7 +293,7 @@ class SpiderMiddlewareManager(MiddlewareManager):
         result = self._evaluate_iterable(response, spider, result, 0, recovered)
         result = await maybe_deferred_to_future(
             cast(
-                "Deferred[Union[Iterable[_T], AsyncIterable[_T]]]",
+                "Deferred[Iterable[_T] | AsyncIterable[_T]]",
                 self._process_spider_output(response, spider, result),
             )
         )
@@ -310,22 +310,22 @@ class SpiderMiddlewareManager(MiddlewareManager):
         response: Response,
         request: Request,
         spider: Spider,
-    ) -> Deferred[Union[MutableChain[_T], MutableAsyncChain[_T]]]:
+    ) -> Deferred[MutableChain[_T] | MutableAsyncChain[_T]]:
         async def process_callback_output(
-            result: Union[Iterable[_T], AsyncIterable[_T]]
-        ) -> Union[MutableChain[_T], MutableAsyncChain[_T]]:
+            result: Iterable[_T] | AsyncIterable[_T],
+        ) -> MutableChain[_T] | MutableAsyncChain[_T]:
             return await self._process_callback_output(response, spider, result)
 
         def process_spider_exception(
             _failure: Failure,
-        ) -> Union[Failure, MutableChain[_T], MutableAsyncChain[_T]]:
+        ) -> Failure | MutableChain[_T] | MutableAsyncChain[_T]:
             return self._process_spider_exception(response, spider, _failure)
 
-        dfd: Deferred[Union[Iterable[_T], AsyncIterable[_T]]] = mustbe_deferred(
+        dfd: Deferred[Iterable[_T] | AsyncIterable[_T]] = mustbe_deferred(
             self._process_spider_input, scrape_func, response, request, spider
         )
-        dfd2: Deferred[Union[MutableChain[_T], MutableAsyncChain[_T]]] = (
-            dfd.addCallback(deferred_f_from_coro_f(process_callback_output))
+        dfd2: Deferred[MutableChain[_T] | MutableAsyncChain[_T]] = dfd.addCallback(
+            deferred_f_from_coro_f(process_callback_output)
         )
         dfd2.addErrback(process_spider_exception)
         return dfd2
@@ -339,10 +339,10 @@ class SpiderMiddlewareManager(MiddlewareManager):
     @staticmethod
     def _get_async_method_pair(
         mw: Any, methodname: str
-    ) -> Union[None, Callable, tuple[Callable, Callable]]:
-        normal_method: Optional[Callable] = getattr(mw, methodname, None)
+    ) -> None | Callable | tuple[Callable, Callable]:
+        normal_method: Callable | None = getattr(mw, methodname, None)
         methodname_async = methodname + "_async"
-        async_method: Optional[Callable] = getattr(mw, methodname_async, None)
+        async_method: Callable | None = getattr(mw, methodname_async, None)
         if not async_method:
             return normal_method
         if not normal_method:
diff --git a/scrapy/crawler.py b/scrapy/crawler.py
index e75ef52ac..701dccf57 100644
--- a/scrapy/crawler.py
+++ b/scrapy/crawler.py
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ import logging
 import pprint
 import signal
 import warnings
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, TypeVar, Union, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, TypeVar, cast
 
 from twisted.internet.defer import (
     Deferred,
@@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ class Crawler:
     def __init__(
         self,
         spidercls: type[Spider],
-        settings: Union[None, dict[str, Any], Settings] = None,
+        settings: None | dict[str, Any] | Settings = None,
         init_reactor: bool = False,
     ):
         if isinstance(spidercls, Spider):
@@ -78,12 +78,12 @@ class Crawler:
         self.crawling: bool = False
         self._started: bool = False
 
-        self.extensions: Optional[ExtensionManager] = None
-        self.stats: Optional[StatsCollector] = None
-        self.logformatter: Optional[LogFormatter] = None
-        self.request_fingerprinter: Optional[RequestFingerprinter] = None
-        self.spider: Optional[Spider] = None
-        self.engine: Optional[ExecutionEngine] = None
+        self.extensions: ExtensionManager | None = None
+        self.stats: StatsCollector | None = None
+        self.logformatter: LogFormatter | None = None
+        self.request_fingerprinter: RequestFingerprinter | None = None
+        self.spider: Spider | None = None
+        self.engine: ExecutionEngine | None = None
 
     def _update_root_log_handler(self) -> None:
         if get_scrapy_root_handler() is not None:
@@ -181,16 +181,16 @@ class Crawler:
     @staticmethod
     def _get_component(
         component_class: type[_T], components: Iterable[Any]
-    ) -> Optional[_T]:
+    ) -> _T | None:
         for component in components:
             if isinstance(component, component_class):
                 return component
         return None
 
-    def get_addon(self, cls: type[_T]) -> Optional[_T]:
+    def get_addon(self, cls: type[_T]) -> _T | None:
         return self._get_component(cls, self.addons.addons)
 
-    def get_downloader_middleware(self, cls: type[_T]) -> Optional[_T]:
+    def get_downloader_middleware(self, cls: type[_T]) -> _T | None:
         if not self.engine:
             raise RuntimeError(
                 "Crawler.get_downloader_middleware() can only be called after "
@@ -198,7 +198,7 @@ class Crawler:
             )
         return self._get_component(cls, self.engine.downloader.middleware.middlewares)
 
-    def get_extension(self, cls: type[_T]) -> Optional[_T]:
+    def get_extension(self, cls: type[_T]) -> _T | None:
         if not self.extensions:
             raise RuntimeError(
                 "Crawler.get_extension() can only be called after the "
@@ -206,7 +206,7 @@ class Crawler:
             )
         return self._get_component(cls, self.extensions.middlewares)
 
-    def get_item_pipeline(self, cls: type[_T]) -> Optional[_T]:
+    def get_item_pipeline(self, cls: type[_T]) -> _T | None:
         if not self.engine:
             raise RuntimeError(
                 "Crawler.get_item_pipeline() can only be called after the "
@@ -214,7 +214,7 @@ class Crawler:
             )
         return self._get_component(cls, self.engine.scraper.itemproc.middlewares)
 
-    def get_spider_middleware(self, cls: type[_T]) -> Optional[_T]:
+    def get_spider_middleware(self, cls: type[_T]) -> _T | None:
         if not self.engine:
             raise RuntimeError(
                 "Crawler.get_spider_middleware() can only be called after the "
@@ -250,7 +250,7 @@ class CrawlerRunner:
         verifyClass(ISpiderLoader, loader_cls)
         return cast("SpiderLoader", loader_cls.from_settings(settings.frozencopy()))
 
-    def __init__(self, settings: Union[dict[str, Any], Settings, None] = None):
+    def __init__(self, settings: dict[str, Any] | Settings | None = None):
         if isinstance(settings, dict) or settings is None:
             settings = Settings(settings)
         self.settings: Settings = settings
@@ -261,7 +261,7 @@ class CrawlerRunner:
 
     def crawl(
         self,
-        crawler_or_spidercls: Union[type[Spider], str, Crawler],
+        crawler_or_spidercls: type[Spider] | str | Crawler,
         *args: Any,
         **kwargs: Any,
     ) -> Deferred[None]:
@@ -308,7 +308,7 @@ class CrawlerRunner:
         return d.addBoth(_done)
 
     def create_crawler(
-        self, crawler_or_spidercls: Union[type[Spider], str, Crawler]
+        self, crawler_or_spidercls: type[Spider] | str | Crawler
     ) -> Crawler:
         """
         Return a :class:`~scrapy.crawler.Crawler` object.
@@ -329,7 +329,7 @@ class CrawlerRunner:
             return crawler_or_spidercls
         return self._create_crawler(crawler_or_spidercls)
 
-    def _create_crawler(self, spidercls: Union[str, type[Spider]]) -> Crawler:
+    def _create_crawler(self, spidercls: str | type[Spider]) -> Crawler:
         if isinstance(spidercls, str):
             spidercls = self.spider_loader.load(spidercls)
         return Crawler(spidercls, self.settings)
@@ -380,7 +380,7 @@ class CrawlerProcess(CrawlerRunner):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        settings: Union[dict[str, Any], Settings, None] = None,
+        settings: dict[str, Any] | Settings | None = None,
         install_root_handler: bool = True,
     ):
         super().__init__(settings)
@@ -409,7 +409,7 @@ class CrawlerProcess(CrawlerRunner):
         )
         reactor.callFromThread(self._stop_reactor)
 
-    def _create_crawler(self, spidercls: Union[type[Spider], str]) -> Crawler:
+    def _create_crawler(self, spidercls: type[Spider] | str) -> Crawler:
         if isinstance(spidercls, str):
             spidercls = self.spider_loader.load(spidercls)
         init_reactor = not self._initialized_reactor
diff --git a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/ajaxcrawl.py b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/ajaxcrawl.py
index 5fc7f31a3..b813baf86 100644
--- a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/ajaxcrawl.py
+++ b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/ajaxcrawl.py
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 
 import logging
 import re
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 
 from w3lib import html
 
@@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ class AjaxCrawlMiddleware:
 
     def process_response(
         self, request: Request, response: Response, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Union[Request, Response]:
+    ) -> Request | Response:
         if not isinstance(response, HtmlResponse) or response.status != 200:
             return response
 
diff --git a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/cookies.py b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/cookies.py
index e384793ee..545dcaac9 100644
--- a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/cookies.py
+++ b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/cookies.py
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 
 import logging
 from collections import defaultdict
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any
 
 from tldextract import TLDExtract
 
@@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ class CookiesMiddleware:
 
     def process_request(
         self, request: Request, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Union[Request, Response, None]:
+    ) -> Request | Response | None:
         if request.meta.get("dont_merge_cookies", False):
             return None
 
@@ -87,7 +87,7 @@ class CookiesMiddleware:
 
     def process_response(
         self, request: Request, response: Response, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Union[Request, Response]:
+    ) -> Request | Response:
         if request.meta.get("dont_merge_cookies", False):
             return response
 
@@ -123,7 +123,7 @@ class CookiesMiddleware:
                 msg = f"Received cookies from: {response}\n{cookies}"
                 logger.debug(msg, extra={"spider": spider})
 
-    def _format_cookie(self, cookie: VerboseCookie, request: Request) -> Optional[str]:
+    def _format_cookie(self, cookie: VerboseCookie, request: Request) -> str | None:
         """
         Given a dict consisting of cookie components, return its string representation.
         Decode from bytes if necessary.
diff --git a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/defaultheaders.py b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/defaultheaders.py
index 312c1e026..d58b4490b 100644
--- a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/defaultheaders.py
+++ b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/defaultheaders.py
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ See documentation in docs/topics/downloader-middleware.rst
 
 from __future__ import annotations
 
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 
 from scrapy.utils.python import without_none_values
 
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ class DefaultHeadersMiddleware:
 
     def process_request(
         self, request: Request, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Union[Request, Response, None]:
+    ) -> Request | Response | None:
         for k, v in self._headers:
             request.headers.setdefault(k, v)
         return None
diff --git a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/downloadtimeout.py b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/downloadtimeout.py
index ee7a24825..28456c697 100644
--- a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/downloadtimeout.py
+++ b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/downloadtimeout.py
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ See documentation in docs/topics/downloader-middleware.rst
 
 from __future__ import annotations
 
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 
 from scrapy import Request, Spider, signals
 
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ class DownloadTimeoutMiddleware:
 
     def process_request(
         self, request: Request, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Union[Request, Response, None]:
+    ) -> Request | Response | None:
         if self._timeout:
             request.meta.setdefault("download_timeout", self._timeout)
         return None
diff --git a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/httpauth.py b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/httpauth.py
index 39165e155..b74140ee1 100644
--- a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/httpauth.py
+++ b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/httpauth.py
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ See documentation in docs/topics/downloader-middleware.rst
 
 from __future__ import annotations
 
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 
 from w3lib.http import basic_auth_header
 
@@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ class HttpAuthMiddleware:
 
     def process_request(
         self, request: Request, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Union[Request, Response, None]:
+    ) -> Request | Response | None:
         auth = getattr(self, "auth", None)
         if auth and b"Authorization" not in request.headers:
             if not self.domain or url_is_from_any_domain(request.url, [self.domain]):
diff --git a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/httpcache.py b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/httpcache.py
index 8377a3c1d..3892dba23 100644
--- a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/httpcache.py
+++ b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/httpcache.py
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 from email.utils import formatdate
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Optional, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 
 from twisted.internet import defer
 from twisted.internet.error import (
@@ -69,7 +69,7 @@ class HttpCacheMiddleware:
 
     def process_request(
         self, request: Request, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Union[Request, Response, None]:
+    ) -> Request | Response | None:
         if request.meta.get("dont_cache", False):
             return None
 
@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ class HttpCacheMiddleware:
             return None
 
         # Look for cached response and check if expired
-        cachedresponse: Optional[Response] = self.storage.retrieve_response(
+        cachedresponse: Response | None = self.storage.retrieve_response(
             spider, request
         )
         if cachedresponse is None:
@@ -103,7 +103,7 @@ class HttpCacheMiddleware:
 
     def process_response(
         self, request: Request, response: Response, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Union[Request, Response]:
+    ) -> Request | Response:
         if request.meta.get("dont_cache", False):
             return response
 
@@ -118,7 +118,7 @@ class HttpCacheMiddleware:
             response.headers["Date"] = formatdate(usegmt=True)
 
         # Do not validate first-hand responses
-        cachedresponse: Optional[Response] = request.meta.pop("cached_response", None)
+        cachedresponse: Response | None = request.meta.pop("cached_response", None)
         if cachedresponse is None:
             self.stats.inc_value("httpcache/firsthand", spider=spider)
             self._cache_response(spider, response, request, cachedresponse)
@@ -134,8 +134,8 @@ class HttpCacheMiddleware:
 
     def process_exception(
         self, request: Request, exception: Exception, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Union[Request, Response, None]:
-        cachedresponse: Optional[Response] = request.meta.pop("cached_response", None)
+    ) -> Request | Response | None:
+        cachedresponse: Response | None = request.meta.pop("cached_response", None)
         if cachedresponse is not None and isinstance(
             exception, self.DOWNLOAD_EXCEPTIONS
         ):
@@ -148,7 +148,7 @@ class HttpCacheMiddleware:
         spider: Spider,
         response: Response,
         request: Request,
-        cachedresponse: Optional[Response],
+        cachedresponse: Response | None,
     ) -> None:
         if self.policy.should_cache_response(response, request):
             self.stats.inc_value("httpcache/store", spider=spider)
diff --git a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/httpcompression.py b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/httpcompression.py
index d913ca25d..84678b8e9 100644
--- a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/httpcompression.py
+++ b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/httpcompression.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 import warnings
 from itertools import chain
 from logging import getLogger
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any
 
 from scrapy import Request, Spider, signals
 from scrapy.exceptions import IgnoreRequest, NotConfigured
@@ -54,9 +54,9 @@ class HttpCompressionMiddleware:
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        stats: Optional[StatsCollector] = None,
+        stats: StatsCollector | None = None,
         *,
-        crawler: Optional[Crawler] = None,
+        crawler: Crawler | None = None,
     ):
         if not crawler:
             self.stats = stats
@@ -96,13 +96,13 @@ class HttpCompressionMiddleware:
 
     def process_request(
         self, request: Request, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Union[Request, Response, None]:
+    ) -> Request | Response | None:
         request.headers.setdefault("Accept-Encoding", b", ".join(ACCEPTED_ENCODINGS))
         return None
 
     def process_response(
         self, request: Request, response: Response, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Union[Request, Response]:
+    ) -> Request | Response:
         if request.method == "HEAD":
             return response
         if isinstance(response, Response):
diff --git a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/httpproxy.py b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/httpproxy.py
index b35ecbd54..2f3f2db47 100644
--- a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/httpproxy.py
+++ b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/httpproxy.py
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 import base64
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Optional, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 from urllib.parse import unquote, urlunparse
 from urllib.request import (  # type: ignore[attr-defined]
     _parse_proxy,
@@ -23,9 +23,9 @@ if TYPE_CHECKING:
 
 
 class HttpProxyMiddleware:
-    def __init__(self, auth_encoding: Optional[str] = "latin-1"):
-        self.auth_encoding: Optional[str] = auth_encoding
-        self.proxies: dict[str, tuple[Optional[bytes], str]] = {}
+    def __init__(self, auth_encoding: str | None = "latin-1"):
+        self.auth_encoding: str | None = auth_encoding
+        self.proxies: dict[str, tuple[bytes | None, str]] = {}
         for type_, url in getproxies().items():
             try:
                 self.proxies[type_] = self._get_proxy(url, type_)
@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ class HttpProxyMiddleware:
     def from_crawler(cls, crawler: Crawler) -> Self:
         if not crawler.settings.getbool("HTTPPROXY_ENABLED"):
             raise NotConfigured
-        auth_encoding: Optional[str] = crawler.settings.get("HTTPPROXY_AUTH_ENCODING")
+        auth_encoding: str | None = crawler.settings.get("HTTPPROXY_AUTH_ENCODING")
         return cls(auth_encoding)
 
     def _basic_auth_header(self, username: str, password: str) -> bytes:
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ class HttpProxyMiddleware:
         )
         return base64.b64encode(user_pass)
 
-    def _get_proxy(self, url: str, orig_type: str) -> tuple[Optional[bytes], str]:
+    def _get_proxy(self, url: str, orig_type: str) -> tuple[bytes | None, str]:
         proxy_type, user, password, hostport = _parse_proxy(url)
         proxy_url = urlunparse((proxy_type or orig_type, hostport, "", "", "", ""))
 
@@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ class HttpProxyMiddleware:
 
     def process_request(
         self, request: Request, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Union[Request, Response, None]:
+    ) -> Request | Response | None:
         creds, proxy_url, scheme = None, None, None
         if "proxy" in request.meta:
             if request.meta["proxy"] is not None:
@@ -82,9 +82,9 @@ class HttpProxyMiddleware:
     def _set_proxy_and_creds(
         self,
         request: Request,
-        proxy_url: Optional[str],
-        creds: Optional[bytes],
-        scheme: Optional[str],
+        proxy_url: str | None,
+        creds: bytes | None,
+        scheme: str | None,
     ) -> None:
         if scheme:
             request.meta["_scheme_proxy"] = True
diff --git a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/redirect.py b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/redirect.py
index 6437485cf..0b883b43a 100644
--- a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/redirect.py
+++ b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/redirect.py
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 import logging
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Union, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, cast
 from urllib.parse import urljoin
 
 from w3lib.url import safe_url_string
@@ -144,7 +144,7 @@ class RedirectMiddleware(BaseRedirectMiddleware):
 
     def process_response(
         self, request: Request, response: Response, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Union[Request, Response]:
+    ) -> Request | Response:
         if (
             request.meta.get("dont_redirect", False)
             or response.status in getattr(spider, "handle_httpstatus_list", [])
@@ -185,7 +185,7 @@ class MetaRefreshMiddleware(BaseRedirectMiddleware):
 
     def process_response(
         self, request: Request, response: Response, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Union[Request, Response]:
+    ) -> Request | Response:
         if (
             request.meta.get("dont_redirect", False)
             or request.method == "HEAD"
diff --git a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/retry.py b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/retry.py
index c32624371..7c0e2280c 100644
--- a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/retry.py
+++ b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/retry.py
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 
 import warnings
 from logging import Logger, getLogger
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any
 
 from scrapy.exceptions import NotConfigured, ScrapyDeprecationWarning
 from scrapy.settings import BaseSettings, Settings
@@ -60,12 +60,12 @@ def get_retry_request(
     request: Request,
     *,
     spider: Spider,
-    reason: Union[str, Exception, type[Exception]] = "unspecified",
-    max_retry_times: Optional[int] = None,
-    priority_adjust: Optional[int] = None,
+    reason: str | Exception | type[Exception] = "unspecified",
+    max_retry_times: int | None = None,
+    priority_adjust: int | None = None,
     logger: Logger = retry_logger,
     stats_base_key: str = "retry",
-) -> Optional[Request]:
+) -> Request | None:
     """
     Returns a new :class:`~scrapy.Request` object to retry the specified
     request, or ``None`` if retries of the specified request have been
@@ -167,7 +167,7 @@ class RetryMiddleware(metaclass=BackwardsCompatibilityMetaclass):
 
     def process_response(
         self, request: Request, response: Response, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Union[Request, Response]:
+    ) -> Request | Response:
         if request.meta.get("dont_retry", False):
             return response
         if response.status in self.retry_http_codes:
@@ -177,7 +177,7 @@ class RetryMiddleware(metaclass=BackwardsCompatibilityMetaclass):
 
     def process_exception(
         self, request: Request, exception: Exception, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Union[Request, Response, None]:
+    ) -> Request | Response | None:
         if isinstance(exception, self.exceptions_to_retry) and not request.meta.get(
             "dont_retry", False
         ):
@@ -187,9 +187,9 @@ class RetryMiddleware(metaclass=BackwardsCompatibilityMetaclass):
     def _retry(
         self,
         request: Request,
-        reason: Union[str, Exception, type[Exception]],
+        reason: str | Exception | type[Exception],
         spider: Spider,
-    ) -> Optional[Request]:
+    ) -> Request | None:
         max_retry_times = request.meta.get("max_retry_times", self.max_retry_times)
         priority_adjust = request.meta.get("priority_adjust", self.priority_adjust)
         return get_retry_request(
diff --git a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/robotstxt.py b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/robotstxt.py
index 81ba009d6..ea9f47d69 100644
--- a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/robotstxt.py
+++ b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/robotstxt.py
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ enable this middleware and enable the ROBOTSTXT_OBEY setting.
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 import logging
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Optional, TypeVar, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, TypeVar
 
 from twisted.internet.defer import Deferred, maybeDeferred
 
@@ -41,13 +41,11 @@ class RobotsTxtMiddleware:
         if not crawler.settings.getbool("ROBOTSTXT_OBEY"):
             raise NotConfigured
         self._default_useragent: str = crawler.settings.get("USER_AGENT", "Scrapy")
-        self._robotstxt_useragent: Optional[str] = crawler.settings.get(
+        self._robotstxt_useragent: str | None = crawler.settings.get(
             "ROBOTSTXT_USER_AGENT", None
         )
         self.crawler: Crawler = crawler
-        self._parsers: dict[
-            str, Union[RobotParser, Deferred[Optional[RobotParser]], None]
-        ] = {}
+        self._parsers: dict[str, RobotParser | Deferred[RobotParser | None] | None] = {}
         self._parserimpl: RobotParser = load_object(
             crawler.settings.get("ROBOTSTXT_PARSER")
         )
@@ -61,24 +59,24 @@ class RobotsTxtMiddleware:
 
     def process_request(
         self, request: Request, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Optional[Deferred[None]]:
+    ) -> Deferred[None] | None:
         if request.meta.get("dont_obey_robotstxt"):
             return None
         if request.url.startswith("data:") or request.url.startswith("file:"):
             return None
-        d: Deferred[Optional[RobotParser]] = maybeDeferred(
+        d: Deferred[RobotParser | None] = maybeDeferred(
             self.robot_parser, request, spider  # type: ignore[call-overload]
         )
         d2: Deferred[None] = d.addCallback(self.process_request_2, request, spider)
         return d2
 
     def process_request_2(
-        self, rp: Optional[RobotParser], request: Request, spider: Spider
+        self, rp: RobotParser | None, request: Request, spider: Spider
     ) -> None:
         if rp is None:
             return
 
-        useragent: Union[str, bytes, None] = self._robotstxt_useragent
+        useragent: str | bytes | None = self._robotstxt_useragent
         if not useragent:
             useragent = request.headers.get(b"User-Agent", self._default_useragent)
             assert useragent is not None
@@ -94,7 +92,7 @@ class RobotsTxtMiddleware:
 
     def robot_parser(
         self, request: Request, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Union[RobotParser, Deferred[Optional[RobotParser]], None]:
+    ) -> RobotParser | Deferred[RobotParser | None] | None:
         url = urlparse_cached(request)
         netloc = url.netloc
 
@@ -117,9 +115,9 @@ class RobotsTxtMiddleware:
 
         parser = self._parsers[netloc]
         if isinstance(parser, Deferred):
-            d: Deferred[Optional[RobotParser]] = Deferred()
+            d: Deferred[RobotParser | None] = Deferred()
 
-            def cb(result: Optional[RobotParser]) -> Optional[RobotParser]:
+            def cb(result: RobotParser | None) -> RobotParser | None:
                 d.callback(result)
                 return result
 
diff --git a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/stats.py b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/stats.py
index ab5655393..fb0f30620 100644
--- a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/stats.py
+++ b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/stats.py
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 from __future__ import annotations
 
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 
 from twisted.web import http
 
@@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ if TYPE_CHECKING:
 
 
 def get_header_size(
-    headers: dict[str, Union[list[Union[str, bytes]], tuple[Union[str, bytes], ...]]]
+    headers: dict[str, list[str | bytes] | tuple[str | bytes, ...]]
 ) -> int:
     size = 0
     for key, value in headers.items():
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ class DownloaderStats:
 
     def process_request(
         self, request: Request, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Union[Request, Response, None]:
+    ) -> Request | Response | None:
         self.stats.inc_value("downloader/request_count", spider=spider)
         self.stats.inc_value(
             f"downloader/request_method_count/{request.method}", spider=spider
@@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ class DownloaderStats:
 
     def process_response(
         self, request: Request, response: Response, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Union[Request, Response]:
+    ) -> Request | Response:
         self.stats.inc_value("downloader/response_count", spider=spider)
         self.stats.inc_value(
             f"downloader/response_status_count/{response.status}", spider=spider
@@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ class DownloaderStats:
 
     def process_exception(
         self, request: Request, exception: Exception, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Union[Request, Response, None]:
+    ) -> Request | Response | None:
         ex_class = global_object_name(exception.__class__)
         self.stats.inc_value("downloader/exception_count", spider=spider)
         self.stats.inc_value(
diff --git a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/useragent.py b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/useragent.py
index 109f1a4d9..ba379f862 100644
--- a/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/useragent.py
+++ b/scrapy/downloadermiddlewares/useragent.py
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
 
 from __future__ import annotations
 
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 
 from scrapy import Request, Spider, signals
 
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ class UserAgentMiddleware:
 
     def process_request(
         self, request: Request, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Union[Request, Response, None]:
+    ) -> Request | Response | None:
         if self.user_agent:
             request.headers.setdefault(b"User-Agent", self.user_agent)
         return None
diff --git a/scrapy/dupefilters.py b/scrapy/dupefilters.py
index 28118977d..d37d2741a 100644
--- a/scrapy/dupefilters.py
+++ b/scrapy/dupefilters.py
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 
 import logging
 from pathlib import Path
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Optional
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 
 from scrapy.utils.job import job_dir
 from scrapy.utils.request import (
@@ -31,10 +31,10 @@ class BaseDupeFilter:
     def request_seen(self, request: Request) -> bool:
         return False
 
-    def open(self) -> Optional[Deferred[None]]:
+    def open(self) -> Deferred[None] | None:
         pass
 
-    def close(self, reason: str) -> Optional[Deferred[None]]:
+    def close(self, reason: str) -> Deferred[None] | None:
         pass
 
     def log(self, request: Request, spider: Spider) -> None:
@@ -47,10 +47,10 @@ class RFPDupeFilter(BaseDupeFilter):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        path: Optional[str] = None,
+        path: str | None = None,
         debug: bool = False,
         *,
-        fingerprinter: Optional[RequestFingerprinterProtocol] = None,
+        fingerprinter: RequestFingerprinterProtocol | None = None,
     ) -> None:
         self.file = None
         self.fingerprinter: RequestFingerprinterProtocol = (
@@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ class RFPDupeFilter(BaseDupeFilter):
         cls,
         settings: BaseSettings,
         *,
-        fingerprinter: Optional[RequestFingerprinterProtocol] = None,
+        fingerprinter: RequestFingerprinterProtocol | None = None,
     ) -> Self:
         debug = settings.getbool("DUPEFILTER_DEBUG")
         return cls(job_dir(settings), debug, fingerprinter=fingerprinter)
diff --git a/scrapy/exporters.py b/scrapy/exporters.py
index ee0033dfb..c9350a956 100644
--- a/scrapy/exporters.py
+++ b/scrapy/exporters.py
@@ -2,6 +2,8 @@
 Item Exporters are used to export/serialize items into different formats.
 """
 
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import csv
 import marshal
 import pickle  # nosec
@@ -9,7 +11,7 @@ import pprint
 from collections.abc import Callable, Iterable, Mapping
 from io import BytesIO, TextIOWrapper
 from json import JSONEncoder
-from typing import Any, Optional, Union
+from typing import Any
 from xml.sax.saxutils import XMLGenerator  # nosec
 from xml.sax.xmlreader import AttributesImpl  # nosec
 
@@ -41,12 +43,12 @@ class BaseItemExporter:
         If dont_fail is set, it won't raise an exception on unexpected options
         (useful for using with keyword arguments in subclasses ``__init__`` methods)
         """
-        self.encoding: Optional[str] = options.pop("encoding", None)
-        self.fields_to_export: Union[Mapping[str, str], Iterable[str], None] = (
-            options.pop("fields_to_export", None)
+        self.encoding: str | None = options.pop("encoding", None)
+        self.fields_to_export: Mapping[str, str] | Iterable[str] | None = options.pop(
+            "fields_to_export", None
         )
         self.export_empty_fields: bool = options.pop("export_empty_fields", False)
-        self.indent: Optional[int] = options.pop("indent", None)
+        self.indent: int | None = options.pop("indent", None)
         if not dont_fail and options:
             raise TypeError(f"Unexpected options: {', '.join(options.keys())}")
 
@@ -54,7 +56,7 @@ class BaseItemExporter:
         raise NotImplementedError
 
     def serialize_field(
-        self, field: Union[Mapping[str, Any], Field], name: str, value: Any
+        self, field: Mapping[str, Any] | Field, name: str, value: Any
     ) -> Any:
         serializer: Callable[[Any], Any] = field.get("serializer", lambda x: x)
         return serializer(value)
@@ -66,7 +68,7 @@ class BaseItemExporter:
         pass
 
     def _get_serialized_fields(
-        self, item: Any, default_value: Any = None, include_empty: Optional[bool] = None
+        self, item: Any, default_value: Any = None, include_empty: bool | None = None
     ) -> Iterable[tuple[str, Any]]:
         """Return the fields to export as an iterable of tuples
         (name, serialized_value)
@@ -225,7 +227,7 @@ class CsvItemExporter(BaseItemExporter):
         file: BytesIO,
         include_headers_line: bool = True,
         join_multivalued: str = ",",
-        errors: Optional[str] = None,
+        errors: str | None = None,
         **kwargs: Any,
     ):
         super().__init__(dont_fail=True, **kwargs)
@@ -245,7 +247,7 @@ class CsvItemExporter(BaseItemExporter):
         self._join_multivalued = join_multivalued
 
     def serialize_field(
-        self, field: Union[Mapping[str, Any], Field], name: str, value: Any
+        self, field: Mapping[str, Any] | Field, name: str, value: Any
     ) -> Any:
         serializer: Callable[[Any], Any] = field.get("serializer", self._join_if_needed)
         return serializer(value)
@@ -346,7 +348,7 @@ class PythonItemExporter(BaseItemExporter):
             self.encoding = "utf-8"
 
     def serialize_field(
-        self, field: Union[Mapping[str, Any], Field], name: str, value: Any
+        self, field: Mapping[str, Any] | Field, name: str, value: Any
     ) -> Any:
         serializer: Callable[[Any], Any] = field.get(
             "serializer", self._serialize_value
@@ -364,10 +366,10 @@ class PythonItemExporter(BaseItemExporter):
             return to_unicode(value, encoding=self.encoding)
         return value
 
-    def _serialize_item(self, item: Any) -> Iterable[tuple[Union[str, bytes], Any]]:
+    def _serialize_item(self, item: Any) -> Iterable[tuple[str | bytes, Any]]:
         for key, value in ItemAdapter(item).items():
             yield key, self._serialize_value(value)
 
-    def export_item(self, item: Any) -> dict[Union[str, bytes], Any]:  # type: ignore[override]
-        result: dict[Union[str, bytes], Any] = dict(self._get_serialized_fields(item))
+    def export_item(self, item: Any) -> dict[str | bytes, Any]:  # type: ignore[override]
+        result: dict[str | bytes, Any] = dict(self._get_serialized_fields(item))
         return result
diff --git a/scrapy/extensions/corestats.py b/scrapy/extensions/corestats.py
index 6ef2d0382..779cd5d1c 100644
--- a/scrapy/extensions/corestats.py
+++ b/scrapy/extensions/corestats.py
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ Extension for collecting core stats like items scraped and start/finish times
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 from datetime import datetime, timezone
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any
 
 from scrapy import Spider, signals
 
@@ -20,7 +20,7 @@ if TYPE_CHECKING:
 class CoreStats:
     def __init__(self, stats: StatsCollector):
         self.stats: StatsCollector = stats
-        self.start_time: Optional[datetime] = None
+        self.start_time: datetime | None = None
 
     @classmethod
     def from_crawler(cls, crawler: Crawler) -> Self:
diff --git a/scrapy/extensions/debug.py b/scrapy/extensions/debug.py
index c54871e02..d3c225bcd 100644
--- a/scrapy/extensions/debug.py
+++ b/scrapy/extensions/debug.py
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ import sys
 import threading
 import traceback
 from pdb import Pdb
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Optional
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 
 from scrapy.utils.engine import format_engine_status
 from scrapy.utils.trackref import format_live_refs
@@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ class StackTraceDump:
     def from_crawler(cls, crawler: Crawler) -> Self:
         return cls(crawler)
 
-    def dump_stacktrace(self, signum: int, frame: Optional[FrameType]) -> None:
+    def dump_stacktrace(self, signum: int, frame: FrameType | None) -> None:
         assert self.crawler.engine
         log_args = {
             "stackdumps": self._thread_stacks(),
@@ -75,6 +75,6 @@ class Debugger:
             # win32 platforms don't support SIGUSR signals
             pass
 
-    def _enter_debugger(self, signum: int, frame: Optional[FrameType]) -> None:
+    def _enter_debugger(self, signum: int, frame: FrameType | None) -> None:
         assert frame
         Pdb().set_trace(frame.f_back)  # noqa: T100
diff --git a/scrapy/extensions/feedexport.py b/scrapy/extensions/feedexport.py
index 7bfcbe6f3..eb1698ce5 100644
--- a/scrapy/extensions/feedexport.py
+++ b/scrapy/extensions/feedexport.py
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ from collections.abc import Callable
 from datetime import datetime, timezone
 from pathlib import Path, PureWindowsPath
 from tempfile import NamedTemporaryFile
-from typing import IO, TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, Protocol, TypeVar, Union, cast
+from typing import IO, TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, Protocol, TypeVar, cast
 from urllib.parse import unquote, urlparse
 
 from twisted.internet.defer import Deferred, DeferredList, maybeDeferred
@@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ def build_storage(
     builder: Callable[..., _StorageT],
     uri: str,
     *args: Any,
-    feed_options: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
+    feed_options: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
     preargs: Iterable[Any] = (),
     **kwargs: Any,
 ) -> _StorageT:
@@ -84,10 +84,10 @@ class ItemFilter:
     :type feed_options: dict
     """
 
-    feed_options: Optional[dict[str, Any]]
+    feed_options: dict[str, Any] | None
     item_classes: tuple[type, ...]
 
-    def __init__(self, feed_options: Optional[dict[str, Any]]) -> None:
+    def __init__(self, feed_options: dict[str, Any] | None) -> None:
         self.feed_options = feed_options
         if feed_options is not None:
             self.item_classes = tuple(
@@ -129,7 +129,7 @@ class IFeedStorage(Interface):
 class FeedStorageProtocol(Protocol):
     """Reimplementation of ``IFeedStorage`` that can be used in type hints."""
 
-    def __init__(self, uri: str, *, feed_options: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None):
+    def __init__(self, uri: str, *, feed_options: dict[str, Any] | None = None):
         """Initialize the storage with the parameters given in the URI and the
         feed-specific options (see :setting:`FEEDS`)"""
 
@@ -137,7 +137,7 @@ class FeedStorageProtocol(Protocol):
         """Open the storage for the given spider. It must return a file-like
         object that will be used for the exporters"""
 
-    def store(self, file: IO[bytes]) -> Optional[Deferred[None]]:
+    def store(self, file: IO[bytes]) -> Deferred[None] | None:
         """Store the given file stream"""
 
 
@@ -150,7 +150,7 @@ class BlockingFeedStorage:
 
         return NamedTemporaryFile(prefix="feed-", dir=path)
 
-    def store(self, file: IO[bytes]) -> Optional[Deferred[None]]:
+    def store(self, file: IO[bytes]) -> Deferred[None] | None:
         return deferToThread(self._store_in_thread, file)
 
     def _store_in_thread(self, file: IO[bytes]) -> None:
@@ -162,9 +162,9 @@ class StdoutFeedStorage:
     def __init__(
         self,
         uri: str,
-        _stdout: Optional[IO[bytes]] = None,
+        _stdout: IO[bytes] | None = None,
         *,
-        feed_options: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
+        feed_options: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
     ):
         if not _stdout:
             _stdout = sys.stdout.buffer
@@ -180,13 +180,13 @@ class StdoutFeedStorage:
     def open(self, spider: Spider) -> IO[bytes]:
         return self._stdout
 
-    def store(self, file: IO[bytes]) -> Optional[Deferred[None]]:
+    def store(self, file: IO[bytes]) -> Deferred[None] | None:
         pass
 
 
 @implementer(IFeedStorage)
 class FileFeedStorage:
-    def __init__(self, uri: str, *, feed_options: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None):
+    def __init__(self, uri: str, *, feed_options: dict[str, Any] | None = None):
         self.path: str = file_uri_to_path(uri)
         feed_options = feed_options or {}
         self.write_mode: OpenBinaryMode = (
@@ -199,7 +199,7 @@ class FileFeedStorage:
             dirname.mkdir(parents=True)
         return Path(self.path).open(self.write_mode)
 
-    def store(self, file: IO[bytes]) -> Optional[Deferred[None]]:
+    def store(self, file: IO[bytes]) -> Deferred[None] | None:
         file.close()
         return None
 
@@ -208,27 +208,27 @@ class S3FeedStorage(BlockingFeedStorage):
     def __init__(
         self,
         uri: str,
-        access_key: Optional[str] = None,
-        secret_key: Optional[str] = None,
-        acl: Optional[str] = None,
-        endpoint_url: Optional[str] = None,
+        access_key: str | None = None,
+        secret_key: str | None = None,
+        acl: str | None = None,
+        endpoint_url: str | None = None,
         *,
-        feed_options: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
-        session_token: Optional[str] = None,
-        region_name: Optional[str] = None,
+        feed_options: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
+        session_token: str | None = None,
+        region_name: str | None = None,
     ):
         if not is_botocore_available():
             raise NotConfigured("missing botocore library")
         u = urlparse(uri)
         assert u.hostname
         self.bucketname: str = u.hostname
-        self.access_key: Optional[str] = u.username or access_key
-        self.secret_key: Optional[str] = u.password or secret_key
-        self.session_token: Optional[str] = session_token
+        self.access_key: str | None = u.username or access_key
+        self.secret_key: str | None = u.password or secret_key
+        self.session_token: str | None = session_token
         self.keyname: str = u.path[1:]  # remove first "/"
-        self.acl: Optional[str] = acl
-        self.endpoint_url: Optional[str] = endpoint_url
-        self.region_name: Optional[str] = region_name
+        self.acl: str | None = acl
+        self.endpoint_url: str | None = endpoint_url
+        self.region_name: str | None = region_name
         # It can be either botocore.client.BaseClient or mypy_boto3_s3.S3Client,
         # there seems to be no good way to infer it statically.
         self.s3_client: Any
@@ -279,7 +279,7 @@ class S3FeedStorage(BlockingFeedStorage):
         crawler: Crawler,
         uri: str,
         *,
-        feed_options: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
+        feed_options: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
     ) -> Self:
         return build_storage(
             cls,
@@ -310,9 +310,9 @@ class S3FeedStorage(BlockingFeedStorage):
 
 
 class GCSFeedStorage(BlockingFeedStorage):
-    def __init__(self, uri: str, project_id: Optional[str], acl: Optional[str]):
-        self.project_id: Optional[str] = project_id
-        self.acl: Optional[str] = acl
+    def __init__(self, uri: str, project_id: str | None, acl: str | None):
+        self.project_id: str | None = project_id
+        self.acl: str | None = acl
         u = urlparse(uri)
         assert u.hostname
         self.bucket_name: str = u.hostname
@@ -342,7 +342,7 @@ class FTPFeedStorage(BlockingFeedStorage):
         uri: str,
         use_active_mode: bool = False,
         *,
-        feed_options: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
+        feed_options: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
     ):
         u = urlparse(uri)
         if not u.hostname:
@@ -361,7 +361,7 @@ class FTPFeedStorage(BlockingFeedStorage):
         crawler: Crawler,
         uri: str,
         *,
-        feed_options: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
+        feed_options: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
     ) -> Self:
         return build_storage(
             cls,
@@ -399,8 +399,8 @@ class FeedSlot:
         settings: BaseSettings,
         crawler: Crawler,
     ):
-        self.file: Optional[IO[bytes]] = None
-        self.exporter: Optional[BaseItemExporter] = None
+        self.file: IO[bytes] | None = None
+        self.exporter: BaseItemExporter | None = None
         self.storage: FeedStorageProtocol = storage
         # feed params
         self.batch_id: int = batch_id
@@ -558,7 +558,7 @@ class FeedExporter:
             self.crawler.signals.send_catch_log_deferred(signals.feed_exporter_closed)
         )
 
-    def _close_slot(self, slot: FeedSlot, spider: Spider) -> Optional[Deferred[None]]:
+    def _close_slot(self, slot: FeedSlot, spider: Spider) -> Deferred[None] | None:
         def get_file(slot_: FeedSlot) -> IO[bytes]:
             assert slot_.file
             if isinstance(slot_.file, PostProcessingManager):
@@ -770,8 +770,8 @@ class FeedExporter:
     def _get_uri_params(
         self,
         spider: Spider,
-        uri_params_function: Union[str, UriParamsCallableT, None],
-        slot: Optional[FeedSlot] = None,
+        uri_params_function: str | UriParamsCallableT | None,
+        slot: FeedSlot | None = None,
     ) -> dict[str, Any]:
         params = {}
         for k in dir(spider):
diff --git a/scrapy/extensions/httpcache.py b/scrapy/extensions/httpcache.py
index a72f9db51..0e6120c21 100644
--- a/scrapy/extensions/httpcache.py
+++ b/scrapy/extensions/httpcache.py
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ from importlib import import_module
 from pathlib import Path
 from time import time
 from types import ModuleType
-from typing import IO, TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, Union, cast
+from typing import IO, TYPE_CHECKING, Any, cast
 from weakref import WeakKeyDictionary
 
 from w3lib.http import headers_dict_to_raw, headers_raw_to_dict
@@ -66,16 +66,14 @@ class RFC2616Policy:
         self.always_store: bool = settings.getbool("HTTPCACHE_ALWAYS_STORE")
         self.ignore_schemes: list[str] = settings.getlist("HTTPCACHE_IGNORE_SCHEMES")
         self._cc_parsed: WeakKeyDictionary[
-            Union[Request, Response], dict[bytes, Optional[bytes]]
+            Request | Response, dict[bytes, bytes | None]
         ] = WeakKeyDictionary()
         self.ignore_response_cache_controls: list[bytes] = [
             to_bytes(cc)
             for cc in settings.getlist("HTTPCACHE_IGNORE_RESPONSE_CACHE_CONTROLS")
         ]
 
-    def _parse_cachecontrol(
-        self, r: Union[Request, Response]
-    ) -> dict[bytes, Optional[bytes]]:
+    def _parse_cachecontrol(self, r: Request | Response) -> dict[bytes, bytes | None]:
         if r not in self._cc_parsed:
             cch = r.headers.get(b"Cache-Control", b"")
             assert cch is not None
@@ -191,7 +189,7 @@ class RFC2616Policy:
         if b"ETag" in cachedresponse.headers:
             request.headers[b"If-None-Match"] = cachedresponse.headers[b"ETag"]
 
-    def _get_max_age(self, cc: dict[bytes, Optional[bytes]]) -> Optional[int]:
+    def _get_max_age(self, cc: dict[bytes, bytes | None]) -> int | None:
         try:
             return max(0, int(cc[b"max-age"]))  # type: ignore[arg-type]
         except (KeyError, ValueError):
@@ -275,7 +273,7 @@ class DbmCacheStorage:
     def close_spider(self, spider: Spider) -> None:
         self.db.close()
 
-    def retrieve_response(self, spider: Spider, request: Request) -> Optional[Response]:
+    def retrieve_response(self, spider: Spider, request: Request) -> Response | None:
         data = self._read_data(spider, request)
         if data is None:
             return None  # not cached
@@ -300,7 +298,7 @@ class DbmCacheStorage:
         self.db[f"{key}_data"] = pickle.dumps(data, protocol=4)
         self.db[f"{key}_time"] = str(time())
 
-    def _read_data(self, spider: Spider, request: Request) -> Optional[dict[str, Any]]:
+    def _read_data(self, spider: Spider, request: Request) -> dict[str, Any] | None:
         key = self._fingerprinter.fingerprint(request).hex()
         db = self.db
         tkey = f"{key}_time"
@@ -320,9 +318,7 @@ class FilesystemCacheStorage:
         self.expiration_secs: int = settings.getint("HTTPCACHE_EXPIRATION_SECS")
         self.use_gzip: bool = settings.getbool("HTTPCACHE_GZIP")
         # https://github.com/python/mypy/issues/10740
-        self._open: Callable[
-            Concatenate[Union[str, os.PathLike], str, ...], IO[bytes]
-        ] = (
+        self._open: Callable[Concatenate[str | os.PathLike, str, ...], IO[bytes]] = (
             gzip.open if self.use_gzip else open  # type: ignore[assignment]
         )
 
@@ -339,7 +335,7 @@ class FilesystemCacheStorage:
     def close_spider(self, spider: Spider) -> None:
         pass
 
-    def retrieve_response(self, spider: Spider, request: Request) -> Optional[Response]:
+    def retrieve_response(self, spider: Spider, request: Request) -> Response | None:
         """Return response if present in cache, or None otherwise."""
         metadata = self._read_meta(spider, request)
         if metadata is None:
@@ -387,7 +383,7 @@ class FilesystemCacheStorage:
         key = self._fingerprinter.fingerprint(request).hex()
         return str(Path(self.cachedir, spider.name, key[0:2], key))
 
-    def _read_meta(self, spider: Spider, request: Request) -> Optional[dict[str, Any]]:
+    def _read_meta(self, spider: Spider, request: Request) -> dict[str, Any] | None:
         rpath = Path(self._get_request_path(spider, request))
         metapath = rpath / "pickled_meta"
         if not metapath.exists():
@@ -399,7 +395,7 @@ class FilesystemCacheStorage:
             return cast(dict[str, Any], pickle.load(f))  # nosec
 
 
-def parse_cachecontrol(header: bytes) -> dict[bytes, Optional[bytes]]:
+def parse_cachecontrol(header: bytes) -> dict[bytes, bytes | None]:
     """Parse Cache-Control header
 
     https://www.w3.org/Protocols/rfc2616/rfc2616-sec14.html#sec14.9
@@ -419,7 +415,7 @@ def parse_cachecontrol(header: bytes) -> dict[bytes, Optional[bytes]]:
     return directives
 
 
-def rfc1123_to_epoch(date_str: Union[str, bytes, None]) -> Optional[int]:
+def rfc1123_to_epoch(date_str: str | bytes | None) -> int | None:
     try:
         date_str = to_unicode(date_str, encoding="ascii")  # type: ignore[arg-type]
         return mktime_tz(parsedate_tz(date_str))  # type: ignore[arg-type]
diff --git a/scrapy/extensions/logstats.py b/scrapy/extensions/logstats.py
index 01484481b..e829d8b92 100644
--- a/scrapy/extensions/logstats.py
+++ b/scrapy/extensions/logstats.py
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 import logging
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Optional, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 
 from twisted.internet import task
 
@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ class LogStats:
         self.stats: StatsCollector = stats
         self.interval: float = interval
         self.multiplier: float = 60.0 / self.interval
-        self.task: Optional[task.LoopingCall] = None
+        self.task: task.LoopingCall | None = None
 
     @classmethod
     def from_crawler(cls, crawler: Crawler) -> Self:
@@ -81,7 +81,7 @@ class LogStats:
 
     def calculate_final_stats(
         self, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Union[tuple[None, None], tuple[float, float]]:
+    ) -> tuple[None, None] | tuple[float, float]:
         start_time = self.stats.get_value("start_time")
         finished_time = self.stats.get_value("finished_time")
 
diff --git a/scrapy/extensions/periodic_log.py b/scrapy/extensions/periodic_log.py
index fba12bec7..f2e3782a4 100644
--- a/scrapy/extensions/periodic_log.py
+++ b/scrapy/extensions/periodic_log.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 import logging
 from datetime import datetime, timezone
 from json import JSONEncoder
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any
 
 from twisted.internet import task
 
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ class PeriodicLog:
         self.stats: StatsCollector = stats
         self.interval: float = interval
         self.multiplier: float = 60.0 / self.interval
-        self.task: Optional[task.LoopingCall] = None
+        self.task: task.LoopingCall | None = None
         self.encoder: JSONEncoder = ScrapyJSONEncoder(sort_keys=True, indent=4)
         self.ext_stats_enabled: bool = bool(ext_stats)
         self.ext_stats_include: list[str] = ext_stats.get("include", [])
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ class PeriodicLog:
         if not interval:
             raise NotConfigured
         try:
-            ext_stats: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = crawler.settings.getdict(
+            ext_stats: dict[str, Any] | None = crawler.settings.getdict(
                 "PERIODIC_LOG_STATS"
             )
         except (TypeError, ValueError):
@@ -62,7 +62,7 @@ class PeriodicLog:
                 else None
             )
         try:
-            ext_delta: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = crawler.settings.getdict(
+            ext_delta: dict[str, Any] | None = crawler.settings.getdict(
                 "PERIODIC_LOG_DELTA"
             )
         except (TypeError, ValueError):
@@ -93,8 +93,8 @@ class PeriodicLog:
 
     def spider_opened(self, spider: Spider) -> None:
         self.time_prev: datetime = datetime.now(tz=timezone.utc)
-        self.delta_prev: dict[str, Union[int, float]] = {}
-        self.stats_prev: dict[str, Union[int, float]] = {}
+        self.delta_prev: dict[str, int | float] = {}
+        self.stats_prev: dict[str, int | float] = {}
 
         self.task = task.LoopingCall(self.log)
         self.task.start(self.interval)
@@ -110,7 +110,7 @@ class PeriodicLog:
         logger.info(self.encoder.encode(data))
 
     def log_delta(self) -> dict[str, Any]:
-        num_stats: dict[str, Union[int, float]] = {
+        num_stats: dict[str, int | float] = {
             k: v
             for k, v in self.stats._stats.items()
             if isinstance(v, (int, float))
diff --git a/scrapy/extensions/spiderstate.py b/scrapy/extensions/spiderstate.py
index 567efd7a1..642919be9 100644
--- a/scrapy/extensions/spiderstate.py
+++ b/scrapy/extensions/spiderstate.py
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 
 import pickle  # nosec
 from pathlib import Path
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Optional
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 
 from scrapy import Spider, signals
 from scrapy.exceptions import NotConfigured
@@ -18,8 +18,8 @@ if TYPE_CHECKING:
 class SpiderState:
     """Store and load spider state during a scraping job"""
 
-    def __init__(self, jobdir: Optional[str] = None):
-        self.jobdir: Optional[str] = jobdir
+    def __init__(self, jobdir: str | None = None):
+        self.jobdir: str | None = jobdir
 
     @classmethod
     def from_crawler(cls, crawler: Crawler) -> Self:
diff --git a/scrapy/extensions/statsmailer.py b/scrapy/extensions/statsmailer.py
index c8fefe792..600eebcf2 100644
--- a/scrapy/extensions/statsmailer.py
+++ b/scrapy/extensions/statsmailer.py
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ Use STATSMAILER_RCPTS setting to enable and give the recipient mail address
 
 from __future__ import annotations
 
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Optional
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 
 from scrapy import Spider, signals
 from scrapy.exceptions import NotConfigured
@@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ class StatsMailer:
         crawler.signals.connect(o.spider_closed, signal=signals.spider_closed)
         return o
 
-    def spider_closed(self, spider: Spider) -> Optional[Deferred[None]]:
+    def spider_closed(self, spider: Spider) -> Deferred[None] | None:
         spider_stats = self.stats.get_stats(spider)
         body = "Global stats\n\n"
         body += "\n".join(f"{k:<50} : {v}" for k, v in self.stats.get_stats().items())
diff --git a/scrapy/extensions/throttle.py b/scrapy/extensions/throttle.py
index 6b5fd181d..d4b4f0e9d 100644
--- a/scrapy/extensions/throttle.py
+++ b/scrapy/extensions/throttle.py
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 import logging
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Optional
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 
 from scrapy import Request, Spider, signals
 from scrapy.exceptions import NotConfigured
@@ -90,8 +90,8 @@ class AutoThrottle:
 
     def _get_slot(
         self, request: Request, spider: Spider
-    ) -> tuple[Optional[str], Optional[Slot]]:
-        key: Optional[str] = request.meta.get("download_slot")
+    ) -> tuple[str | None, Slot | None]:
+        key: str | None = request.meta.get("download_slot")
         if key is None:
             return None, None
         assert self.crawler.engine
diff --git a/scrapy/http/cookies.py b/scrapy/http/cookies.py
index b5388a918..56941ad51 100644
--- a/scrapy/http/cookies.py
+++ b/scrapy/http/cookies.py
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ import time
 from http.cookiejar import Cookie
 from http.cookiejar import CookieJar as _CookieJar
 from http.cookiejar import CookiePolicy, DefaultCookiePolicy
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, cast
 
 from scrapy.utils.httpobj import urlparse_cached
 from scrapy.utils.python import to_unicode
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ IPV4_RE = re.compile(r"\.\d+$", re.ASCII)
 class CookieJar:
     def __init__(
         self,
-        policy: Optional[CookiePolicy] = None,
+        policy: CookiePolicy | None = None,
         check_expired_frequency: int = 10000,
     ):
         self.policy: CookiePolicy = policy or DefaultCookiePolicy()
@@ -83,9 +83,9 @@ class CookieJar:
 
     def clear(
         self,
-        domain: Optional[str] = None,
-        path: Optional[str] = None,
-        name: Optional[str] = None,
+        domain: str | None = None,
+        path: str | None = None,
+        name: str | None = None,
     ) -> None:
         self.jar.clear(domain, path, name)
 
@@ -188,7 +188,7 @@ class WrappedRequest:
     def has_header(self, name: str) -> bool:
         return name in self.request.headers
 
-    def get_header(self, name: str, default: Optional[str] = None) -> Optional[str]:
+    def get_header(self, name: str, default: str | None = None) -> str | None:
         value = self.request.headers.get(name, default)
         return to_unicode(value, errors="replace") if value is not None else None
 
diff --git a/scrapy/http/headers.py b/scrapy/http/headers.py
index 1dcbcb966..29ba9533b 100644
--- a/scrapy/http/headers.py
+++ b/scrapy/http/headers.py
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 from collections.abc import Mapping
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, AnyStr, Optional, Union, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, AnyStr, Union, cast
 
 from w3lib.http import headers_dict_to_raw
 
@@ -25,14 +25,14 @@ class Headers(CaselessDict):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        seq: Union[Mapping[AnyStr, Any], Iterable[tuple[AnyStr, Any]], None] = None,
+        seq: Mapping[AnyStr, Any] | Iterable[tuple[AnyStr, Any]] | None = None,
         encoding: str = "utf-8",
     ):
         self.encoding: str = encoding
         super().__init__(seq)
 
     def update(  # type: ignore[override]
-        self, seq: Union[Mapping[AnyStr, Any], Iterable[tuple[AnyStr, Any]]]
+        self, seq: Mapping[AnyStr, Any] | Iterable[tuple[AnyStr, Any]]
     ) -> None:
         seq = seq.items() if isinstance(seq, Mapping) else seq
         iseq: dict[bytes, list[bytes]] = {}
@@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ class Headers(CaselessDict):
         """Normalize key to bytes"""
         return self._tobytes(key.title())
 
-    def normvalue(self, value: Union[_RawValueT, Iterable[_RawValueT]]) -> list[bytes]:
+    def normvalue(self, value: _RawValueT | Iterable[_RawValueT]) -> list[bytes]:
         """Normalize values to bytes"""
         _value: Iterable[_RawValueT]
         if value is None:
@@ -67,13 +67,13 @@ class Headers(CaselessDict):
             return str(x).encode(self.encoding)
         raise TypeError(f"Unsupported value type: {type(x)}")
 
-    def __getitem__(self, key: AnyStr) -> Optional[bytes]:
+    def __getitem__(self, key: AnyStr) -> bytes | None:
         try:
             return cast(list[bytes], super().__getitem__(key))[-1]
         except IndexError:
             return None
 
-    def get(self, key: AnyStr, def_val: Any = None) -> Optional[bytes]:
+    def get(self, key: AnyStr, def_val: Any = None) -> bytes | None:
         try:
             return cast(list[bytes], super().get(key, def_val))[-1]
         except IndexError:
@@ -103,7 +103,7 @@ class Headers(CaselessDict):
     def items(self) -> Iterable[tuple[bytes, list[bytes]]]:  # type: ignore[override]
         return ((k, self.getlist(k)) for k in self.keys())
 
-    def values(self) -> list[Optional[bytes]]:  # type: ignore[override]
+    def values(self) -> list[bytes | None]:  # type: ignore[override]
         return [
             self[k] for k in self.keys()  # pylint: disable=consider-using-dict-items
         ]
diff --git a/scrapy/http/request/__init__.py b/scrapy/http/request/__init__.py
index aac8d3e50..ed225555c 100644
--- a/scrapy/http/request/__init__.py
+++ b/scrapy/http/request/__init__.py
@@ -13,7 +13,6 @@ from typing import (
     Any,
     AnyStr,
     NoReturn,
-    Optional,
     TypedDict,
     TypeVar,
     Union,
@@ -112,18 +111,18 @@ class Request(object_ref):
     def __init__(
         self,
         url: str,
-        callback: Optional[CallbackT] = None,
+        callback: CallbackT | None = None,
         method: str = "GET",
-        headers: Union[Mapping[AnyStr, Any], Iterable[tuple[AnyStr, Any]], None] = None,
-        body: Optional[Union[bytes, str]] = None,
-        cookies: Optional[CookiesT] = None,
-        meta: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
+        headers: Mapping[AnyStr, Any] | Iterable[tuple[AnyStr, Any]] | None = None,
+        body: bytes | str | None = None,
+        cookies: CookiesT | None = None,
+        meta: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
         encoding: str = "utf-8",
         priority: int = 0,
         dont_filter: bool = False,
-        errback: Optional[Callable[[Failure], Any]] = None,
-        flags: Optional[list[str]] = None,
-        cb_kwargs: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
+        errback: Callable[[Failure], Any] | None = None,
+        flags: list[str] | None = None,
+        cb_kwargs: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
     ) -> None:
         self._encoding: str = encoding  # this one has to be set first
         self.method: str = str(method).upper()
@@ -139,17 +138,15 @@ class Request(object_ref):
             )
         if not (callable(errback) or errback is None):
             raise TypeError(f"errback must be a callable, got {type(errback).__name__}")
-        self.callback: Optional[CallbackT] = callback
-        self.errback: Optional[Callable[[Failure], Any]] = errback
+        self.callback: CallbackT | None = callback
+        self.errback: Callable[[Failure], Any] | None = errback
 
         self.cookies: CookiesT = cookies or {}
         self.headers: Headers = Headers(headers or {}, encoding=encoding)
         self.dont_filter: bool = dont_filter
 
-        self._meta: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = dict(meta) if meta else None
-        self._cb_kwargs: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = (
-            dict(cb_kwargs) if cb_kwargs else None
-        )
+        self._meta: dict[str, Any] | None = dict(meta) if meta else None
+        self._cb_kwargs: dict[str, Any] | None = dict(cb_kwargs) if cb_kwargs else None
         self.flags: list[str] = [] if flags is None else list(flags)
 
     @property
@@ -186,7 +183,7 @@ class Request(object_ref):
     def body(self) -> bytes:
         return self._body
 
-    def _set_body(self, body: Optional[Union[str, bytes]]) -> None:
+    def _set_body(self, body: str | bytes | None) -> None:
         self._body = b"" if body is None else to_bytes(body, self.encoding)
 
     @property
@@ -208,7 +205,7 @@ class Request(object_ref):
     def replace(self, *args: Any, cls: None = None, **kwargs: Any) -> Self: ...
 
     def replace(
-        self, *args: Any, cls: Optional[type[Request]] = None, **kwargs: Any
+        self, *args: Any, cls: type[Request] | None = None, **kwargs: Any
     ) -> Request:
         """Create a new Request with the same attributes except for those given new values"""
         for x in self.attributes:
@@ -255,7 +252,7 @@ class Request(object_ref):
         request_kwargs.update(kwargs)
         return cls(**request_kwargs)
 
-    def to_dict(self, *, spider: Optional[scrapy.Spider] = None) -> dict[str, Any]:
+    def to_dict(self, *, spider: scrapy.Spider | None = None) -> dict[str, Any]:
         """Return a dictionary containing the Request's data.
 
         Use :func:`~scrapy.utils.request.request_from_dict` to convert back into a :class:`~scrapy.Request` object.
diff --git a/scrapy/http/request/form.py b/scrapy/http/request/form.py
index d9c913672..2fabf08d1 100644
--- a/scrapy/http/request/form.py
+++ b/scrapy/http/request/form.py
@@ -62,14 +62,14 @@ class FormRequest(Request):
     def from_response(
         cls,
         response: TextResponse,
-        formname: Optional[str] = None,
-        formid: Optional[str] = None,
+        formname: str | None = None,
+        formid: str | None = None,
         formnumber: int = 0,
         formdata: FormdataType = None,
-        clickdata: Optional[dict[str, Union[str, int]]] = None,
+        clickdata: dict[str, str | int] | None = None,
         dont_click: bool = False,
-        formxpath: Optional[str] = None,
-        formcss: Optional[str] = None,
+        formxpath: str | None = None,
+        formcss: str | None = None,
         **kwargs: Any,
     ) -> Self:
         kwargs.setdefault("encoding", response.encoding)
@@ -92,7 +92,7 @@ class FormRequest(Request):
         return cls(url=url, method=method, formdata=formdata, **kwargs)
 
 
-def _get_form_url(form: FormElement, url: Optional[str]) -> str:
+def _get_form_url(form: FormElement, url: str | None) -> str:
     assert form.base_url is not None  # typing
     if url is None:
         action = form.get("action")
@@ -113,10 +113,10 @@ def _urlencode(seq: Iterable[FormdataKVType], enc: str) -> str:
 
 def _get_form(
     response: TextResponse,
-    formname: Optional[str],
-    formid: Optional[str],
+    formname: str | None,
+    formid: str | None,
     formnumber: int,
-    formxpath: Optional[str],
+    formxpath: str | None,
 ) -> FormElement:
     """Find the wanted form element within the given response."""
     root = response.selector.root
@@ -160,7 +160,7 @@ def _get_inputs(
     form: FormElement,
     formdata: FormdataType,
     dont_click: bool,
-    clickdata: Optional[dict[str, Union[str, int]]],
+    clickdata: dict[str, str | int] | None,
 ) -> list[FormdataKVType]:
     """Return a list of key-value pairs for the inputs found in the given form."""
     try:
@@ -196,8 +196,8 @@ def _get_inputs(
 
 
 def _value(
-    ele: Union[InputElement, SelectElement, TextareaElement]
-) -> tuple[Optional[str], Union[None, str, MultipleSelectOptions]]:
+    ele: InputElement | SelectElement | TextareaElement,
+) -> tuple[str | None, None | str | MultipleSelectOptions]:
     n = ele.name
     v = ele.value
     if ele.tag == "select":
@@ -206,8 +206,8 @@ def _value(
 
 
 def _select_value(
-    ele: SelectElement, n: Optional[str], v: Union[None, str, MultipleSelectOptions]
-) -> tuple[Optional[str], Union[None, str, MultipleSelectOptions]]:
+    ele: SelectElement, n: str | None, v: None | str | MultipleSelectOptions
+) -> tuple[str | None, None | str | MultipleSelectOptions]:
     multiple = ele.multiple
     if v is None and not multiple:
         # Match browser behaviour on simple select tag without options selected
@@ -218,8 +218,8 @@ def _select_value(
 
 
 def _get_clickable(
-    clickdata: Optional[dict[str, Union[str, int]]], form: FormElement
-) -> Optional[tuple[str, str]]:
+    clickdata: dict[str, str | int] | None, form: FormElement
+) -> tuple[str, str] | None:
     """
     Returns the clickable element specified in clickdata,
     if the latter is given. If not, it returns the first
diff --git a/scrapy/http/request/json_request.py b/scrapy/http/request/json_request.py
index 48862534e..289c60591 100644
--- a/scrapy/http/request/json_request.py
+++ b/scrapy/http/request/json_request.py
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 import copy
 import json
 import warnings
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, overload
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, overload
 
 from scrapy.http.request import Request, RequestTypeVar
 
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ class JsonRequest(Request):
     attributes: tuple[str, ...] = Request.attributes + ("dumps_kwargs",)
 
     def __init__(
-        self, *args: Any, dumps_kwargs: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None, **kwargs: Any
+        self, *args: Any, dumps_kwargs: dict[str, Any] | None = None, **kwargs: Any
     ) -> None:
         dumps_kwargs = copy.deepcopy(dumps_kwargs) if dumps_kwargs is not None else {}
         dumps_kwargs.setdefault("sort_keys", True)
@@ -59,7 +59,7 @@ class JsonRequest(Request):
     def replace(self, *args: Any, cls: None = None, **kwargs: Any) -> Self: ...
 
     def replace(
-        self, *args: Any, cls: Optional[type[Request]] = None, **kwargs: Any
+        self, *args: Any, cls: type[Request] | None = None, **kwargs: Any
     ) -> Request:
         body_passed = kwargs.get("body", None) is not None
         data: Any = kwargs.pop("data", None)
diff --git a/scrapy/http/request/rpc.py b/scrapy/http/request/rpc.py
index 096ecd370..01fe740a8 100644
--- a/scrapy/http/request/rpc.py
+++ b/scrapy/http/request/rpc.py
@@ -5,8 +5,10 @@ This module implements the XmlRpcRequest class which is a more convenient class
 See documentation in docs/topics/request-response.rst
 """
 
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import xmlrpc.client as xmlrpclib
-from typing import Any, Optional
+from typing import Any
 
 import defusedxml.xmlrpc
 
@@ -19,7 +21,7 @@ DUMPS_ARGS = get_func_args(xmlrpclib.dumps)
 
 
 class XmlRpcRequest(Request):
-    def __init__(self, *args: Any, encoding: Optional[str] = None, **kwargs: Any):
+    def __init__(self, *args: Any, encoding: str | None = None, **kwargs: Any):
         if "body" not in kwargs and "params" in kwargs:
             kw = {k: kwargs.pop(k) for k in DUMPS_ARGS if k in kwargs}
             kwargs["body"] = xmlrpclib.dumps(**kw)
diff --git a/scrapy/http/response/__init__.py b/scrapy/http/response/__init__.py
index c69945e2d..d50388548 100644
--- a/scrapy/http/response/__init__.py
+++ b/scrapy/http/response/__init__.py
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ See documentation in docs/topics/request-response.rst
 
 from __future__ import annotations
 
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, AnyStr, Optional, TypeVar, Union, overload
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, AnyStr, TypeVar, overload
 from urllib.parse import urljoin
 
 from scrapy.exceptions import NotSupported
@@ -60,23 +60,23 @@ class Response(object_ref):
         self,
         url: str,
         status: int = 200,
-        headers: Union[Mapping[AnyStr, Any], Iterable[tuple[AnyStr, Any]], None] = None,
+        headers: Mapping[AnyStr, Any] | Iterable[tuple[AnyStr, Any]] | None = None,
         body: bytes = b"",
-        flags: Optional[list[str]] = None,
-        request: Optional[Request] = None,
-        certificate: Optional[Certificate] = None,
-        ip_address: Union[IPv4Address, IPv6Address, None] = None,
-        protocol: Optional[str] = None,
+        flags: list[str] | None = None,
+        request: Request | None = None,
+        certificate: Certificate | None = None,
+        ip_address: IPv4Address | IPv6Address | None = None,
+        protocol: str | None = None,
     ):
         self.headers: Headers = Headers(headers or {})
         self.status: int = int(status)
         self._set_body(body)
         self._set_url(url)
-        self.request: Optional[Request] = request
+        self.request: Request | None = request
         self.flags: list[str] = [] if flags is None else list(flags)
-        self.certificate: Optional[Certificate] = certificate
-        self.ip_address: Union[IPv4Address, IPv6Address, None] = ip_address
-        self.protocol: Optional[str] = protocol
+        self.certificate: Certificate | None = certificate
+        self.ip_address: IPv4Address | IPv6Address | None = ip_address
+        self.protocol: str | None = protocol
 
     @property
     def cb_kwargs(self) -> dict[str, Any]:
@@ -114,7 +114,7 @@ class Response(object_ref):
     def body(self) -> bytes:
         return self._body
 
-    def _set_body(self, body: Optional[bytes]) -> None:
+    def _set_body(self, body: bytes | None) -> None:
         if body is None:
             self._body = b""
         elif not isinstance(body, bytes):
@@ -142,7 +142,7 @@ class Response(object_ref):
     def replace(self, *args: Any, cls: None = None, **kwargs: Any) -> Self: ...
 
     def replace(
-        self, *args: Any, cls: Optional[type[Response]] = None, **kwargs: Any
+        self, *args: Any, cls: type[Response] | None = None, **kwargs: Any
     ) -> Response:
         """Create a new Response with the same attributes except for those given new values"""
         for x in self.attributes:
@@ -183,19 +183,19 @@ class Response(object_ref):
 
     def follow(
         self,
-        url: Union[str, Link],
-        callback: Optional[CallbackT] = None,
+        url: str | Link,
+        callback: CallbackT | None = None,
         method: str = "GET",
-        headers: Union[Mapping[AnyStr, Any], Iterable[tuple[AnyStr, Any]], None] = None,
-        body: Optional[Union[bytes, str]] = None,
-        cookies: Optional[CookiesT] = None,
-        meta: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
-        encoding: Optional[str] = "utf-8",
+        headers: Mapping[AnyStr, Any] | Iterable[tuple[AnyStr, Any]] | None = None,
+        body: bytes | str | None = None,
+        cookies: CookiesT | None = None,
+        meta: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
+        encoding: str | None = "utf-8",
         priority: int = 0,
         dont_filter: bool = False,
-        errback: Optional[Callable[[Failure], Any]] = None,
-        cb_kwargs: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
-        flags: Optional[list[str]] = None,
+        errback: Callable[[Failure], Any] | None = None,
+        cb_kwargs: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
+        flags: list[str] | None = None,
     ) -> Request:
         """
         Return a :class:`~.Request` instance to follow a link ``url``.
@@ -236,19 +236,19 @@ class Response(object_ref):
 
     def follow_all(
         self,
-        urls: Iterable[Union[str, Link]],
-        callback: Optional[CallbackT] = None,
+        urls: Iterable[str | Link],
+        callback: CallbackT | None = None,
         method: str = "GET",
-        headers: Union[Mapping[AnyStr, Any], Iterable[tuple[AnyStr, Any]], None] = None,
-        body: Optional[Union[bytes, str]] = None,
-        cookies: Optional[CookiesT] = None,
-        meta: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
-        encoding: Optional[str] = "utf-8",
+        headers: Mapping[AnyStr, Any] | Iterable[tuple[AnyStr, Any]] | None = None,
+        body: bytes | str | None = None,
+        cookies: CookiesT | None = None,
+        meta: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
+        encoding: str | None = "utf-8",
         priority: int = 0,
         dont_filter: bool = False,
-        errback: Optional[Callable[[Failure], Any]] = None,
-        cb_kwargs: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
-        flags: Optional[list[str]] = None,
+        errback: Callable[[Failure], Any] | None = None,
+        cb_kwargs: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
+        flags: list[str] | None = None,
     ) -> Iterable[Request]:
         """
         .. versionadded:: 2.0
diff --git a/scrapy/http/response/text.py b/scrapy/http/response/text.py
index 680c1f602..c713f6188 100644
--- a/scrapy/http/response/text.py
+++ b/scrapy/http/response/text.py
@@ -8,9 +8,8 @@ See documentation in docs/topics/request-response.rst
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 import json
-from collections.abc import Iterable
 from contextlib import suppress
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, AnyStr, Optional, Union, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, AnyStr, cast
 from urllib.parse import urljoin
 
 import parsel
@@ -24,16 +23,16 @@ from w3lib.encoding import (
 from w3lib.html import strip_html5_whitespace
 
 from scrapy.http.response import Response
-from scrapy.link import Link
 from scrapy.utils.python import memoizemethod_noargs, to_unicode
 from scrapy.utils.response import get_base_url
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
-    from collections.abc import Callable, Mapping
+    from collections.abc import Callable, Iterable, Mapping
 
     from twisted.python.failure import Failure
 
     from scrapy.http.request import CallbackT, CookiesT, Request
+    from scrapy.link import Link
     from scrapy.selector import Selector, SelectorList
 
 
@@ -47,13 +46,13 @@ class TextResponse(Response):
     attributes: tuple[str, ...] = Response.attributes + ("encoding",)
 
     def __init__(self, *args: Any, **kwargs: Any):
-        self._encoding: Optional[str] = kwargs.pop("encoding", None)
-        self._cached_benc: Optional[str] = None
-        self._cached_ubody: Optional[str] = None
-        self._cached_selector: Optional[Selector] = None
+        self._encoding: str | None = kwargs.pop("encoding", None)
+        self._cached_benc: str | None = None
+        self._cached_ubody: str | None = None
+        self._cached_selector: Selector | None = None
         super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)
 
-    def _set_body(self, body: Union[str, bytes, None]) -> None:
+    def _set_body(self, body: str | bytes | None) -> None:
         self._body: bytes = b""  # used by encoding detection
         if isinstance(body, str):
             if self._encoding is None:
@@ -69,7 +68,7 @@ class TextResponse(Response):
     def encoding(self) -> str:
         return self._declared_encoding() or self._body_inferred_encoding()
 
-    def _declared_encoding(self) -> Optional[str]:
+    def _declared_encoding(self) -> str | None:
         return (
             self._encoding
             or self._bom_encoding()
@@ -104,7 +103,7 @@ class TextResponse(Response):
         return urljoin(get_base_url(self), url)
 
     @memoizemethod_noargs
-    def _headers_encoding(self) -> Optional[str]:
+    def _headers_encoding(self) -> str | None:
         content_type = cast(bytes, self.headers.get(b"Content-Type", b""))
         return http_content_type_encoding(to_unicode(content_type, encoding="latin-1"))
 
@@ -123,7 +122,7 @@ class TextResponse(Response):
             self._cached_ubody = ubody
         return self._cached_benc
 
-    def _auto_detect_fun(self, text: bytes) -> Optional[str]:
+    def _auto_detect_fun(self, text: bytes) -> str | None:
         for enc in (self._DEFAULT_ENCODING, "utf-8", "cp1252"):
             try:
                 text.decode(enc)
@@ -133,11 +132,11 @@ class TextResponse(Response):
         return None
 
     @memoizemethod_noargs
-    def _body_declared_encoding(self) -> Optional[str]:
+    def _body_declared_encoding(self) -> str | None:
         return html_body_declared_encoding(self.body)
 
     @memoizemethod_noargs
-    def _bom_encoding(self) -> Optional[str]:
+    def _bom_encoding(self) -> str | None:
         return read_bom(self.body)[0]
 
     @property
@@ -170,19 +169,19 @@ class TextResponse(Response):
 
     def follow(
         self,
-        url: Union[str, Link, parsel.Selector],
-        callback: Optional[CallbackT] = None,
+        url: str | Link | parsel.Selector,
+        callback: CallbackT | None = None,
         method: str = "GET",
-        headers: Union[Mapping[AnyStr, Any], Iterable[tuple[AnyStr, Any]], None] = None,
-        body: Optional[Union[bytes, str]] = None,
-        cookies: Optional[CookiesT] = None,
-        meta: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
-        encoding: Optional[str] = None,
+        headers: Mapping[AnyStr, Any] | Iterable[tuple[AnyStr, Any]] | None = None,
+        body: bytes | str | None = None,
+        cookies: CookiesT | None = None,
+        meta: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
+        encoding: str | None = None,
         priority: int = 0,
         dont_filter: bool = False,
-        errback: Optional[Callable[[Failure], Any]] = None,
-        cb_kwargs: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
-        flags: Optional[list[str]] = None,
+        errback: Callable[[Failure], Any] | None = None,
+        cb_kwargs: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
+        flags: list[str] | None = None,
     ) -> Request:
         """
         Return a :class:`~.Request` instance to follow a link ``url``.
@@ -223,21 +222,21 @@ class TextResponse(Response):
 
     def follow_all(
         self,
-        urls: Union[Iterable[Union[str, Link]], parsel.SelectorList, None] = None,
-        callback: Optional[CallbackT] = None,
+        urls: Iterable[str | Link] | parsel.SelectorList | None = None,
+        callback: CallbackT | None = None,
         method: str = "GET",
-        headers: Union[Mapping[AnyStr, Any], Iterable[tuple[AnyStr, Any]], None] = None,
-        body: Optional[Union[bytes, str]] = None,
-        cookies: Optional[CookiesT] = None,
-        meta: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
-        encoding: Optional[str] = None,
+        headers: Mapping[AnyStr, Any] | Iterable[tuple[AnyStr, Any]] | None = None,
+        body: bytes | str | None = None,
+        cookies: CookiesT | None = None,
+        meta: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
+        encoding: str | None = None,
         priority: int = 0,
         dont_filter: bool = False,
-        errback: Optional[Callable[[Failure], Any]] = None,
-        cb_kwargs: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
-        flags: Optional[list[str]] = None,
-        css: Optional[str] = None,
-        xpath: Optional[str] = None,
+        errback: Callable[[Failure], Any] | None = None,
+        cb_kwargs: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
+        flags: list[str] | None = None,
+        css: str | None = None,
+        xpath: str | None = None,
     ) -> Iterable[Request]:
         """
         A generator that produces :class:`~.Request` instances to follow all
@@ -279,7 +278,7 @@ class TextResponse(Response):
                 with suppress(_InvalidSelector):
                     urls.append(_url_from_selector(sel))
         return super().follow_all(
-            urls=cast(Iterable[Union[str, Link]], urls),
+            urls=cast("Iterable[str | Link]", urls),
             callback=callback,
             method=method,
             headers=headers,
diff --git a/scrapy/linkextractors/lxmlhtml.py b/scrapy/linkextractors/lxmlhtml.py
index 73673b1c6..192f937ce 100644
--- a/scrapy/linkextractors/lxmlhtml.py
+++ b/scrapy/linkextractors/lxmlhtml.py
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ import operator
 import re
 from collections.abc import Callable, Iterable
 from functools import partial
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, Union, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Union, cast
 from urllib.parse import urljoin, urlparse
 
 from lxml import etree  # nosec
@@ -58,9 +58,9 @@ def _canonicalize_link_url(link: Link) -> str:
 class LxmlParserLinkExtractor:
     def __init__(
         self,
-        tag: Union[str, Callable[[str], bool]] = "a",
-        attr: Union[str, Callable[[str], bool]] = "href",
-        process: Optional[Callable[[Any], Any]] = None,
+        tag: str | Callable[[str], bool] = "a",
+        attr: str | Callable[[str], bool] = "href",
+        process: Callable[[Any], Any] | None = None,
         unique: bool = False,
         strip: bool = True,
         canonicalized: bool = False,
@@ -166,18 +166,18 @@ class LxmlLinkExtractor:
         self,
         allow: _RegexOrSeveralT = (),
         deny: _RegexOrSeveralT = (),
-        allow_domains: Union[str, Iterable[str]] = (),
-        deny_domains: Union[str, Iterable[str]] = (),
-        restrict_xpaths: Union[str, Iterable[str]] = (),
-        tags: Union[str, Iterable[str]] = ("a", "area"),
-        attrs: Union[str, Iterable[str]] = ("href",),
+        allow_domains: str | Iterable[str] = (),
+        deny_domains: str | Iterable[str] = (),
+        restrict_xpaths: str | Iterable[str] = (),
+        tags: str | Iterable[str] = ("a", "area"),
+        attrs: str | Iterable[str] = ("href",),
         canonicalize: bool = False,
         unique: bool = True,
-        process_value: Optional[Callable[[Any], Any]] = None,
-        deny_extensions: Union[str, Iterable[str], None] = None,
-        restrict_css: Union[str, Iterable[str]] = (),
+        process_value: Callable[[Any], Any] | None = None,
+        deny_extensions: str | Iterable[str] | None = None,
+        restrict_css: str | Iterable[str] = (),
         strip: bool = True,
-        restrict_text: Optional[_RegexOrSeveralT] = None,
+        restrict_text: _RegexOrSeveralT | None = None,
     ):
         tags, attrs = set(arg_to_iter(tags)), set(arg_to_iter(attrs))
         self.link_extractor = LxmlParserLinkExtractor(
@@ -206,7 +206,7 @@ class LxmlLinkExtractor:
         self.restrict_text: list[re.Pattern[str]] = self._compile_regexes(restrict_text)
 
     @staticmethod
-    def _compile_regexes(value: Optional[_RegexOrSeveralT]) -> list[re.Pattern[str]]:
+    def _compile_regexes(value: _RegexOrSeveralT | None) -> list[re.Pattern[str]]:
         return [
             x if isinstance(x, re.Pattern) else re.compile(x)
             for x in arg_to_iter(value)
diff --git a/scrapy/loader/__init__.py b/scrapy/loader/__init__.py
index 9644cc093..d35720a45 100644
--- a/scrapy/loader/__init__.py
+++ b/scrapy/loader/__init__.py
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ See documentation in docs/topics/loaders.rst
 
 from __future__ import annotations
 
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any
 
 import itemloaders
 
@@ -92,9 +92,9 @@ class ItemLoader(itemloaders.ItemLoader):
     def __init__(
         self,
         item: Any = None,
-        selector: Optional[Selector] = None,
-        response: Optional[TextResponse] = None,
-        parent: Optional[itemloaders.ItemLoader] = None,
+        selector: Selector | None = None,
+        response: TextResponse | None = None,
+        parent: itemloaders.ItemLoader | None = None,
         **context: Any,
     ):
         if selector is None and response is not None:
diff --git a/scrapy/logformatter.py b/scrapy/logformatter.py
index 2b838d8e2..544f4adfe 100644
--- a/scrapy/logformatter.py
+++ b/scrapy/logformatter.py
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 
 import logging
 import os
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, TypedDict, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, TypedDict
 
 from twisted.python.failure import Failure
 
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ DOWNLOADERRORMSG_LONG = "Error downloading %(request)s: %(errmsg)s"
 class LogFormatterResult(TypedDict):
     level: int
     msg: str
-    args: Union[dict[str, Any], tuple[Any, ...]]
+    args: dict[str, Any] | tuple[Any, ...]
 
 
 class LogFormatter:
@@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ class LogFormatter:
         }
 
     def scraped(
-        self, item: Any, response: Union[Response, Failure, None], spider: Spider
+        self, item: Any, response: Response | Failure | None, spider: Spider
     ) -> LogFormatterResult:
         """Logs a message when an item is scraped by a spider."""
         src: Any
@@ -116,7 +116,7 @@ class LogFormatter:
         self,
         item: Any,
         exception: BaseException,
-        response: Optional[Response],
+        response: Response | None,
         spider: Spider,
     ) -> LogFormatterResult:
         """Logs a message when an item is dropped while it is passing through the item pipeline."""
@@ -133,7 +133,7 @@ class LogFormatter:
         self,
         item: Any,
         exception: BaseException,
-        response: Optional[Response],
+        response: Response | None,
         spider: Spider,
     ) -> LogFormatterResult:
         """Logs a message when an item causes an error while it is passing
@@ -153,7 +153,7 @@ class LogFormatter:
         self,
         failure: Failure,
         request: Request,
-        response: Union[Response, Failure],
+        response: Response | Failure,
         spider: Spider,
     ) -> LogFormatterResult:
         """Logs an error message from a spider.
@@ -174,7 +174,7 @@ class LogFormatter:
         failure: Failure,
         request: Request,
         spider: Spider,
-        errmsg: Optional[str] = None,
+        errmsg: str | None = None,
     ) -> LogFormatterResult:
         """Logs a download error message from a spider (typically coming from
         the engine).
diff --git a/scrapy/mail.py b/scrapy/mail.py
index f33cf2939..1e65b1623 100644
--- a/scrapy/mail.py
+++ b/scrapy/mail.py
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ from email.mime.nonmultipart import MIMENonMultipart
 from email.mime.text import MIMEText
 from email.utils import formatdate
 from io import BytesIO
-from typing import IO, TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, Union
+from typing import IO, TYPE_CHECKING, Any
 
 from twisted import version as twisted_version
 from twisted.internet import ssl
@@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
 COMMASPACE = ", "
 
 
-def _to_bytes_or_none(text: Union[str, bytes, None]) -> Optional[bytes]:
+def _to_bytes_or_none(text: str | bytes | None) -> bytes | None:
     if text is None:
         return None
     return to_bytes(text)
@@ -56,8 +56,8 @@ class MailSender:
         self,
         smtphost: str = "localhost",
         mailfrom: str = "scrapy@localhost",
-        smtpuser: Optional[str] = None,
-        smtppass: Optional[str] = None,
+        smtpuser: str | None = None,
+        smtppass: str | None = None,
         smtpport: int = 25,
         smtptls: bool = False,
         smtpssl: bool = False,
@@ -65,8 +65,8 @@ class MailSender:
     ):
         self.smtphost: str = smtphost
         self.smtpport: int = smtpport
-        self.smtpuser: Optional[bytes] = _to_bytes_or_none(smtpuser)
-        self.smtppass: Optional[bytes] = _to_bytes_or_none(smtppass)
+        self.smtpuser: bytes | None = _to_bytes_or_none(smtpuser)
+        self.smtppass: bytes | None = _to_bytes_or_none(smtppass)
         self.smtptls: bool = smtptls
         self.smtpssl: bool = smtpssl
         self.mailfrom: str = mailfrom
@@ -86,15 +86,15 @@ class MailSender:
 
     def send(
         self,
-        to: Union[str, list[str]],
+        to: str | list[str],
         subject: str,
         body: str,
-        cc: Union[str, list[str], None] = None,
+        cc: str | list[str] | None = None,
         attachs: Sequence[tuple[str, str, IO[Any]]] = (),
         mimetype: str = "text/plain",
-        charset: Optional[str] = None,
-        _callback: Optional[Callable[..., None]] = None,
-    ) -> Optional[Deferred[None]]:
+        charset: str | None = None,
+        _callback: Callable[..., None] | None = None,
+    ) -> Deferred[None] | None:
         from twisted.internet import reactor
 
         msg: MIMEBase
diff --git a/scrapy/middleware.py b/scrapy/middleware.py
index 825d6b4c8..39f26717a 100644
--- a/scrapy/middleware.py
+++ b/scrapy/middleware.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 import logging
 import pprint
 from collections import defaultdict, deque
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, TypeVar, Union, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, TypeVar, cast
 
 from scrapy.exceptions import NotConfigured
 from scrapy.utils.defer import process_chain, process_parallel
@@ -40,9 +40,9 @@ class MiddlewareManager:
         self.middlewares = middlewares
         # Only process_spider_output and process_spider_exception can be None.
         # Only process_spider_output can be a tuple, and only until _async compatibility methods are removed.
-        self.methods: dict[
-            str, deque[Union[None, Callable, tuple[Callable, Callable]]]
-        ] = defaultdict(deque)
+        self.methods: dict[str, deque[None | Callable | tuple[Callable, Callable]]] = (
+            defaultdict(deque)
+        )
         for mw in middlewares:
             self._add_middleware(mw)
 
@@ -51,9 +51,7 @@ class MiddlewareManager:
         raise NotImplementedError
 
     @classmethod
-    def from_settings(
-        cls, settings: Settings, crawler: Optional[Crawler] = None
-    ) -> Self:
+    def from_settings(cls, settings: Settings, crawler: Crawler | None = None) -> Self:
         mwlist = cls._get_mwlist_from_settings(settings)
         middlewares = []
         enabled = []
diff --git a/scrapy/pipelines/files.py b/scrapy/pipelines/files.py
index 32e9ffe7c..4a8639c22 100644
--- a/scrapy/pipelines/files.py
+++ b/scrapy/pipelines/files.py
@@ -17,17 +17,7 @@ from contextlib import suppress
 from ftplib import FTP
 from io import BytesIO
 from pathlib import Path
-from typing import (
-    IO,
-    TYPE_CHECKING,
-    Any,
-    NoReturn,
-    Optional,
-    Protocol,
-    TypedDict,
-    Union,
-    cast,
-)
+from typing import IO, TYPE_CHECKING, Any, NoReturn, Protocol, TypedDict, cast
 from urllib.parse import urlparse
 
 from itemadapter import ItemAdapter
@@ -61,7 +51,7 @@ if TYPE_CHECKING:
 logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
 
 
-def _to_string(path: Union[str, PathLike[str]]) -> str:
+def _to_string(path: str | PathLike[str]) -> str:
     return str(path)  # convert a Path object to string
 
 
@@ -99,17 +89,17 @@ class FilesStoreProtocol(Protocol):
         path: str,
         buf: BytesIO,
         info: MediaPipeline.SpiderInfo,
-        meta: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
-        headers: Optional[dict[str, str]] = None,
-    ) -> Optional[Deferred[Any]]: ...
+        meta: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
+        headers: dict[str, str] | None = None,
+    ) -> Deferred[Any] | None: ...
 
     def stat_file(
         self, path: str, info: MediaPipeline.SpiderInfo
-    ) -> Union[StatInfo, Deferred[StatInfo]]: ...
+    ) -> StatInfo | Deferred[StatInfo]: ...
 
 
 class FSFilesStore:
-    def __init__(self, basedir: Union[str, PathLike[str]]):
+    def __init__(self, basedir: str | PathLike[str]):
         basedir = _to_string(basedir)
         if "://" in basedir:
             basedir = basedir.split("://", 1)[1]
@@ -121,18 +111,18 @@ class FSFilesStore:
 
     def persist_file(
         self,
-        path: Union[str, PathLike[str]],
+        path: str | PathLike[str],
         buf: BytesIO,
         info: MediaPipeline.SpiderInfo,
-        meta: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
-        headers: Optional[dict[str, str]] = None,
+        meta: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
+        headers: dict[str, str] | None = None,
     ) -> None:
         absolute_path = self._get_filesystem_path(path)
         self._mkdir(absolute_path.parent, info)
         absolute_path.write_bytes(buf.getvalue())
 
     def stat_file(
-        self, path: Union[str, PathLike[str]], info: MediaPipeline.SpiderInfo
+        self, path: str | PathLike[str], info: MediaPipeline.SpiderInfo
     ) -> StatInfo:
         absolute_path = self._get_filesystem_path(path)
         try:
@@ -145,12 +135,12 @@ class FSFilesStore:
 
         return {"last_modified": last_modified, "checksum": checksum}
 
-    def _get_filesystem_path(self, path: Union[str, PathLike[str]]) -> Path:
+    def _get_filesystem_path(self, path: str | PathLike[str]) -> Path:
         path_comps = _to_string(path).split("/")
         return Path(self.basedir, *path_comps)
 
     def _mkdir(
-        self, dirname: Path, domain: Optional[MediaPipeline.SpiderInfo] = None
+        self, dirname: Path, domain: MediaPipeline.SpiderInfo | None = None
     ) -> None:
         seen: set[str] = self.created_directories[domain] if domain else set()
         if str(dirname) not in seen:
@@ -218,8 +208,8 @@ class S3FilesStore:
         path: str,
         buf: BytesIO,
         info: MediaPipeline.SpiderInfo,
-        meta: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
-        headers: Optional[dict[str, str]] = None,
+        meta: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
+        headers: dict[str, str] | None = None,
     ) -> Deferred[Any]:
         """Upload file to S3 storage"""
         key_name = f"{self.prefix}{path}"
@@ -327,7 +317,7 @@ class GCSFilesStore:
             deferToThread(self.bucket.get_blob, blob_path).addCallback(_onsuccess),
         )
 
-    def _get_content_type(self, headers: Optional[dict[str, str]]) -> str:
+    def _get_content_type(self, headers: dict[str, str] | None) -> str:
         if headers and "Content-Type" in headers:
             return headers["Content-Type"]
         return "application/octet-stream"
@@ -340,8 +330,8 @@ class GCSFilesStore:
         path: str,
         buf: BytesIO,
         info: MediaPipeline.SpiderInfo,
-        meta: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
-        headers: Optional[dict[str, str]] = None,
+        meta: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
+        headers: dict[str, str] | None = None,
     ) -> Deferred[Any]:
         blob_path = self._get_blob_path(path)
         blob = self.bucket.blob(blob_path)
@@ -356,9 +346,9 @@ class GCSFilesStore:
 
 
 class FTPFilesStore:
-    FTP_USERNAME: Optional[str] = None
-    FTP_PASSWORD: Optional[str] = None
-    USE_ACTIVE_MODE: Optional[bool] = None
+    FTP_USERNAME: str | None = None
+    FTP_PASSWORD: str | None = None
+    USE_ACTIVE_MODE: bool | None = None
 
     def __init__(self, uri: str):
         if not uri.startswith("ftp://"):
@@ -380,8 +370,8 @@ class FTPFilesStore:
         path: str,
         buf: BytesIO,
         info: MediaPipeline.SpiderInfo,
-        meta: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
-        headers: Optional[dict[str, str]] = None,
+        meta: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
+        headers: dict[str, str] | None = None,
     ) -> Deferred[Any]:
         path = f"{self.basedir}/{path}"
         return deferToThread(
@@ -450,9 +440,9 @@ class FilesPipeline(MediaPipeline):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        store_uri: Union[str, PathLike[str]],
-        download_func: Optional[Callable[[Request, Spider], Response]] = None,
-        settings: Union[Settings, dict[str, Any], None] = None,
+        store_uri: str | PathLike[str],
+        download_func: Callable[[Request, Spider], Response] | None = None,
+        settings: Settings | dict[str, Any] | None = None,
     ):
         store_uri = _to_string(store_uri)
         if not store_uri:
@@ -517,8 +507,8 @@ class FilesPipeline(MediaPipeline):
 
     def media_to_download(
         self, request: Request, info: MediaPipeline.SpiderInfo, *, item: Any = None
-    ) -> Deferred[Optional[FileInfo]]:
-        def _onsuccess(result: StatInfo) -> Optional[FileInfo]:
+    ) -> Deferred[FileInfo | None]:
+        def _onsuccess(result: StatInfo) -> FileInfo | None:
             if not result:
                 return None  # returning None force download
 
@@ -551,7 +541,7 @@ class FilesPipeline(MediaPipeline):
         path = self.file_path(request, info=info, item=item)
         # maybeDeferred() overloads don't seem to support a Union[_T, Deferred[_T]] return type
         dfd: Deferred[StatInfo] = maybeDeferred(self.store.stat_file, path, info)  # type: ignore[call-overload]
-        dfd2: Deferred[Optional[FileInfo]] = dfd.addCallback(_onsuccess)
+        dfd2: Deferred[FileInfo | None] = dfd.addCallback(_onsuccess)
         dfd2.addErrback(lambda _: None)
         dfd2.addErrback(
             lambda f: logger.error(
@@ -684,8 +674,8 @@ class FilesPipeline(MediaPipeline):
     def file_path(
         self,
         request: Request,
-        response: Optional[Response] = None,
-        info: Optional[MediaPipeline.SpiderInfo] = None,
+        response: Response | None = None,
+        info: MediaPipeline.SpiderInfo | None = None,
         *,
         item: Any = None,
     ) -> str:
diff --git a/scrapy/pipelines/images.py b/scrapy/pipelines/images.py
index f2fe4396b..bbba7d1e1 100644
--- a/scrapy/pipelines/images.py
+++ b/scrapy/pipelines/images.py
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ import hashlib
 import warnings
 from contextlib import suppress
 from io import BytesIO
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, Union, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, cast
 
 from itemadapter import ItemAdapter
 
@@ -74,9 +74,9 @@ class ImagesPipeline(FilesPipeline):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        store_uri: Union[str, PathLike[str]],
-        download_func: Optional[Callable[[Request, Spider], Response]] = None,
-        settings: Union[Settings, dict[str, Any], None] = None,
+        store_uri: str | PathLike[str],
+        download_func: Callable[[Request, Spider], Response] | None = None,
+        settings: Settings | dict[str, Any] | None = None,
     ):
         try:
             from PIL import Image
@@ -120,7 +120,7 @@ class ImagesPipeline(FilesPipeline):
             resolve("IMAGES_THUMBS"), self.THUMBS
         )
 
-        self._deprecated_convert_image: Optional[bool] = None
+        self._deprecated_convert_image: bool | None = None
 
     @classmethod
     def from_settings(cls, settings: Settings) -> Self:
@@ -168,7 +168,7 @@ class ImagesPipeline(FilesPipeline):
         *,
         item: Any = None,
     ) -> str:
-        checksum: Optional[str] = None
+        checksum: str | None = None
         for path, image, buf in self.get_images(response, request, info, item=item):
             if checksum is None:
                 buf.seek(0)
@@ -235,8 +235,8 @@ class ImagesPipeline(FilesPipeline):
     def convert_image(
         self,
         image: Image.Image,
-        size: Optional[tuple[int, int]] = None,
-        response_body: Optional[BytesIO] = None,
+        size: tuple[int, int] | None = None,
+        response_body: BytesIO | None = None,
     ) -> tuple[Image.Image, BytesIO]:
         if response_body is None:
             warnings.warn(
@@ -291,8 +291,8 @@ class ImagesPipeline(FilesPipeline):
     def file_path(
         self,
         request: Request,
-        response: Optional[Response] = None,
-        info: Optional[MediaPipeline.SpiderInfo] = None,
+        response: Response | None = None,
+        info: MediaPipeline.SpiderInfo | None = None,
         *,
         item: Any = None,
     ) -> str:
@@ -303,8 +303,8 @@ class ImagesPipeline(FilesPipeline):
         self,
         request: Request,
         thumb_id: str,
-        response: Optional[Response] = None,
-        info: Optional[MediaPipeline.SpiderInfo] = None,
+        response: Response | None = None,
+        info: MediaPipeline.SpiderInfo | None = None,
         *,
         item: Any = None,
     ) -> str:
diff --git a/scrapy/pipelines/media.py b/scrapy/pipelines/media.py
index b30cf9264..61eddffa7 100644
--- a/scrapy/pipelines/media.py
+++ b/scrapy/pipelines/media.py
@@ -9,7 +9,6 @@ from typing import (
     Any,
     Literal,
     NoReturn,
-    Optional,
     TypedDict,
     TypeVar,
     Union,
@@ -44,7 +43,7 @@ _T = TypeVar("_T")
 class FileInfo(TypedDict):
     url: str
     path: str
-    checksum: Optional[str]
+    checksum: str | None
     status: str
 
 
@@ -64,15 +63,15 @@ class MediaPipeline(ABC):
         def __init__(self, spider: Spider):
             self.spider: Spider = spider
             self.downloading: set[bytes] = set()
-            self.downloaded: dict[bytes, Union[FileInfo, Failure]] = {}
+            self.downloaded: dict[bytes, FileInfo | Failure] = {}
             self.waiting: defaultdict[bytes, list[Deferred[FileInfo]]] = defaultdict(
                 list
             )
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        download_func: Optional[Callable[[Request, Spider], Response]] = None,
-        settings: Union[Settings, dict[str, Any], None] = None,
+        download_func: Callable[[Request, Spider], Response] | None = None,
+        settings: Settings | dict[str, Any] | None = None,
     ):
         self.download_func = download_func
 
@@ -94,8 +93,8 @@ class MediaPipeline(ABC):
     def _key_for_pipe(
         self,
         key: str,
-        base_class_name: Optional[str] = None,
-        settings: Optional[Settings] = None,
+        base_class_name: str | None = None,
+        settings: Settings | None = None,
     ) -> str:
         class_name = self.__class__.__name__
         formatted_key = f"{class_name.upper()}_{key}"
@@ -161,7 +160,7 @@ class MediaPipeline(ABC):
 
         # Download request checking media_to_download hook output first
         info.downloading.add(fp)
-        dfd: Deferred[Optional[FileInfo]] = mustbe_deferred(
+        dfd: Deferred[FileInfo | None] = mustbe_deferred(
             self.media_to_download, request, info, item=item
         )
         dfd2: Deferred[FileInfo] = dfd.addCallback(
@@ -182,8 +181,8 @@ class MediaPipeline(ABC):
             request.meta["handle_httpstatus_all"] = True
 
     def _check_media_to_download(
-        self, result: Optional[FileInfo], request: Request, info: SpiderInfo, item: Any
-    ) -> Union[FileInfo, Deferred[FileInfo]]:
+        self, result: FileInfo | None, request: Request, info: SpiderInfo, item: Any
+    ) -> FileInfo | Deferred[FileInfo]:
         if result is not None:
             return result
         dfd: Deferred[Response]
@@ -201,7 +200,7 @@ class MediaPipeline(ABC):
         return dfd2
 
     def _cache_result_and_execute_waiters(
-        self, result: Union[FileInfo, Failure], fp: bytes, info: SpiderInfo
+        self, result: FileInfo | Failure, fp: bytes, info: SpiderInfo
     ) -> None:
         if isinstance(result, Failure):
             # minimize cached information for failure
@@ -243,7 +242,7 @@ class MediaPipeline(ABC):
     @abstractmethod
     def media_to_download(
         self, request: Request, info: SpiderInfo, *, item: Any = None
-    ) -> Deferred[Optional[FileInfo]]:
+    ) -> Deferred[FileInfo | None]:
         """Check request before starting download"""
         raise NotImplementedError()
 
@@ -291,8 +290,8 @@ class MediaPipeline(ABC):
     def file_path(
         self,
         request: Request,
-        response: Optional[Response] = None,
-        info: Optional[SpiderInfo] = None,
+        response: Response | None = None,
+        info: SpiderInfo | None = None,
         *,
         item: Any = None,
     ) -> str:
diff --git a/scrapy/pqueues.py b/scrapy/pqueues.py
index e1bb21fb1..28e2073a2 100644
--- a/scrapy/pqueues.py
+++ b/scrapy/pqueues.py
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 
 import hashlib
 import logging
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Optional, Protocol, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Protocol, cast
 
 from scrapy import Request
 from scrapy.core.downloader import Downloader
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ class QueueProtocol(Protocol):
 
     def push(self, request: Request) -> None: ...
 
-    def pop(self) -> Optional[Request]: ...
+    def pop(self) -> Request | None: ...
 
     def close(self) -> None: ...
 
@@ -96,7 +96,7 @@ class ScrapyPriorityQueue:
         self.downstream_queue_cls: type[QueueProtocol] = downstream_queue_cls
         self.key: str = key
         self.queues: dict[int, QueueProtocol] = {}
-        self.curprio: Optional[int] = None
+        self.curprio: int | None = None
         self.init_prios(startprios)
 
     def init_prios(self, startprios: Iterable[int]) -> None:
@@ -127,7 +127,7 @@ class ScrapyPriorityQueue:
         if self.curprio is None or priority < self.curprio:
             self.curprio = priority
 
-    def pop(self) -> Optional[Request]:
+    def pop(self) -> Request | None:
         if self.curprio is None:
             return None
         q = self.queues[self.curprio]
@@ -139,7 +139,7 @@ class ScrapyPriorityQueue:
             self.curprio = min(prios) if prios else None
         return m
 
-    def peek(self) -> Optional[Request]:
+    def peek(self) -> Request | None:
         """Returns the next object to be returned by :meth:`pop`,
         but without removing it from the queue.
 
@@ -193,7 +193,7 @@ class DownloaderAwarePriorityQueue:
         crawler: Crawler,
         downstream_queue_cls: type[QueueProtocol],
         key: str,
-        startprios: Optional[dict[str, Iterable[int]]] = None,
+        startprios: dict[str, Iterable[int]] | None = None,
     ) -> Self:
         return cls(crawler, downstream_queue_cls, key, startprios)
 
@@ -202,7 +202,7 @@ class DownloaderAwarePriorityQueue:
         crawler: Crawler,
         downstream_queue_cls: type[QueueProtocol],
         key: str,
-        slot_startprios: Optional[dict[str, Iterable[int]]] = None,
+        slot_startprios: dict[str, Iterable[int]] | None = None,
     ):
         if crawler.settings.getint("CONCURRENT_REQUESTS_PER_IP") != 0:
             raise ValueError(
@@ -239,7 +239,7 @@ class DownloaderAwarePriorityQueue:
             startprios,
         )
 
-    def pop(self) -> Optional[Request]:
+    def pop(self) -> Request | None:
         stats = self._downloader_interface.stats(self.pqueues)
 
         if not stats:
@@ -259,7 +259,7 @@ class DownloaderAwarePriorityQueue:
         queue = self.pqueues[slot]
         queue.push(request)
 
-    def peek(self) -> Optional[Request]:
+    def peek(self) -> Request | None:
         """Returns the next object to be returned by :meth:`pop`,
         but without removing it from the queue.
 
diff --git a/scrapy/resolver.py b/scrapy/resolver.py
index 97fa74bc2..99a6cc5f6 100644
--- a/scrapy/resolver.py
+++ b/scrapy/resolver.py
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 from __future__ import annotations
 
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any
 
 from twisted.internet import defer
 from twisted.internet.base import ReactorBase, ThreadedResolver
@@ -128,7 +128,7 @@ class CachingHostnameResolver:
         resolutionReceiver: IResolutionReceiver,
         hostName: str,
         portNumber: int = 0,
-        addressTypes: Optional[Sequence[type[IAddress]]] = None,
+        addressTypes: Sequence[type[IAddress]] | None = None,
         transportSemantics: str = "TCP",
     ) -> IHostResolution:
         try:
diff --git a/scrapy/responsetypes.py b/scrapy/responsetypes.py
index 7154f2b95..3f6f030a5 100644
--- a/scrapy/responsetypes.py
+++ b/scrapy/responsetypes.py
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 from io import StringIO
 from mimetypes import MimeTypes
 from pkgutil import get_data
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Optional, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 
 from scrapy.http import Response
 from scrapy.utils.misc import load_object
@@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ class ResponseTypes:
         return self.classes.get(basetype, Response)
 
     def from_content_type(
-        self, content_type: Union[str, bytes], content_encoding: Optional[bytes] = None
+        self, content_type: str | bytes, content_encoding: bytes | None = None
     ) -> type[Response]:
         """Return the most appropriate Response class from an HTTP Content-Type
         header"""
@@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ class ResponseTypes:
         return self.from_mimetype(mimetype)
 
     def from_content_disposition(
-        self, content_disposition: Union[str, bytes]
+        self, content_disposition: str | bytes
     ) -> type[Response]:
         try:
             filename = (
@@ -123,10 +123,10 @@ class ResponseTypes:
 
     def from_args(
         self,
-        headers: Optional[Mapping[bytes, bytes]] = None,
-        url: Optional[str] = None,
-        filename: Optional[str] = None,
-        body: Optional[bytes] = None,
+        headers: Mapping[bytes, bytes] | None = None,
+        url: str | None = None,
+        filename: str | None = None,
+        body: bytes | None = None,
     ) -> type[Response]:
         """Guess the most appropriate Response class based on
         the given arguments."""
diff --git a/scrapy/robotstxt.py b/scrapy/robotstxt.py
index 0d282dc37..a0e5fc671 100644
--- a/scrapy/robotstxt.py
+++ b/scrapy/robotstxt.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 import logging
 import sys
 from abc import ABCMeta, abstractmethod
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Optional, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 from warnings import warn
 
 from scrapy.exceptions import ScrapyDeprecationWarning
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
 
 
 def decode_robotstxt(
-    robotstxt_body: bytes, spider: Optional[Spider], to_native_str_type: bool = False
+    robotstxt_body: bytes, spider: Spider | None, to_native_str_type: bool = False
 ) -> str:
     try:
         if to_native_str_type:
@@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ class RobotParser(metaclass=ABCMeta):
         pass
 
     @abstractmethod
-    def allowed(self, url: Union[str, bytes], user_agent: Union[str, bytes]) -> bool:
+    def allowed(self, url: str | bytes, user_agent: str | bytes) -> bool:
         """Return ``True`` if  ``user_agent`` is allowed to crawl ``url``, otherwise return ``False``.
 
         :param url: Absolute URL
@@ -70,10 +70,10 @@ class RobotParser(metaclass=ABCMeta):
 
 
 class PythonRobotParser(RobotParser):
-    def __init__(self, robotstxt_body: bytes, spider: Optional[Spider]):
+    def __init__(self, robotstxt_body: bytes, spider: Spider | None):
         from urllib.robotparser import RobotFileParser
 
-        self.spider: Optional[Spider] = spider
+        self.spider: Spider | None = spider
         body_decoded = decode_robotstxt(robotstxt_body, spider, to_native_str_type=True)
         self.rp: RobotFileParser = RobotFileParser()
         self.rp.parse(body_decoded.splitlines())
@@ -84,18 +84,18 @@ class PythonRobotParser(RobotParser):
         o = cls(robotstxt_body, spider)
         return o
 
-    def allowed(self, url: Union[str, bytes], user_agent: Union[str, bytes]) -> bool:
+    def allowed(self, url: str | bytes, user_agent: str | bytes) -> bool:
         user_agent = to_unicode(user_agent)
         url = to_unicode(url)
         return self.rp.can_fetch(user_agent, url)
 
 
 class ReppyRobotParser(RobotParser):
-    def __init__(self, robotstxt_body: bytes, spider: Optional[Spider]):
+    def __init__(self, robotstxt_body: bytes, spider: Spider | None):
         warn("ReppyRobotParser is deprecated.", ScrapyDeprecationWarning, stacklevel=2)
         from reppy.robots import Robots
 
-        self.spider: Optional[Spider] = spider
+        self.spider: Spider | None = spider
         self.rp = Robots.parse("", robotstxt_body)
 
     @classmethod
@@ -104,15 +104,15 @@ class ReppyRobotParser(RobotParser):
         o = cls(robotstxt_body, spider)
         return o
 
-    def allowed(self, url: Union[str, bytes], user_agent: Union[str, bytes]) -> bool:
+    def allowed(self, url: str | bytes, user_agent: str | bytes) -> bool:
         return self.rp.allowed(url, user_agent)
 
 
 class RerpRobotParser(RobotParser):
-    def __init__(self, robotstxt_body: bytes, spider: Optional[Spider]):
+    def __init__(self, robotstxt_body: bytes, spider: Spider | None):
         from robotexclusionrulesparser import RobotExclusionRulesParser
 
-        self.spider: Optional[Spider] = spider
+        self.spider: Spider | None = spider
         self.rp: RobotExclusionRulesParser = RobotExclusionRulesParser()
         body_decoded = decode_robotstxt(robotstxt_body, spider)
         self.rp.parse(body_decoded)
@@ -123,17 +123,17 @@ class RerpRobotParser(RobotParser):
         o = cls(robotstxt_body, spider)
         return o
 
-    def allowed(self, url: Union[str, bytes], user_agent: Union[str, bytes]) -> bool:
+    def allowed(self, url: str | bytes, user_agent: str | bytes) -> bool:
         user_agent = to_unicode(user_agent)
         url = to_unicode(url)
         return self.rp.is_allowed(user_agent, url)
 
 
 class ProtegoRobotParser(RobotParser):
-    def __init__(self, robotstxt_body: bytes, spider: Optional[Spider]):
+    def __init__(self, robotstxt_body: bytes, spider: Spider | None):
         from protego import Protego
 
-        self.spider: Optional[Spider] = spider
+        self.spider: Spider | None = spider
         body_decoded = decode_robotstxt(robotstxt_body, spider)
         self.rp = Protego.parse(body_decoded)
 
@@ -143,7 +143,7 @@ class ProtegoRobotParser(RobotParser):
         o = cls(robotstxt_body, spider)
         return o
 
-    def allowed(self, url: Union[str, bytes], user_agent: Union[str, bytes]) -> bool:
+    def allowed(self, url: str | bytes, user_agent: str | bytes) -> bool:
         user_agent = to_unicode(user_agent)
         url = to_unicode(url)
         return self.rp.can_fetch(url, user_agent)
diff --git a/scrapy/selector/unified.py b/scrapy/selector/unified.py
index 0a3eae409..db9014b41 100644
--- a/scrapy/selector/unified.py
+++ b/scrapy/selector/unified.py
@@ -2,7 +2,9 @@
 XPath selectors based on lxml
 """
 
-from typing import Any, Optional, Union
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+from typing import Any
 
 from parsel import Selector as _ParselSelector
 
@@ -16,13 +18,13 @@ __all__ = ["Selector", "SelectorList"]
 _NOT_SET = object()
 
 
-def _st(response: Optional[TextResponse], st: Optional[str]) -> str:
+def _st(response: TextResponse | None, st: str | None) -> str:
     if st is None:
         return "xml" if isinstance(response, XmlResponse) else "html"
     return st
 
 
-def _response_from_text(text: Union[str, bytes], st: Optional[str]) -> TextResponse:
+def _response_from_text(text: str | bytes, st: str | None) -> TextResponse:
     rt: type[TextResponse] = XmlResponse if st == "xml" else HtmlResponse
     return rt(url="about:blank", encoding="utf-8", body=to_bytes(text, "utf-8"))
 
@@ -71,10 +73,10 @@ class Selector(_ParselSelector, object_ref):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        response: Optional[TextResponse] = None,
-        text: Optional[str] = None,
-        type: Optional[str] = None,
-        root: Optional[Any] = _NOT_SET,
+        response: TextResponse | None = None,
+        text: str | None = None,
+        type: str | None = None,
+        root: Any | None = _NOT_SET,
         **kwargs: Any,
     ):
         if response is not None and text is not None:
diff --git a/scrapy/settings/__init__.py b/scrapy/settings/__init__.py
index b7e3763fb..274ced3e3 100644
--- a/scrapy/settings/__init__.py
+++ b/scrapy/settings/__init__.py
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ import json
 from collections.abc import Iterable, Iterator, Mapping, MutableMapping
 from importlib import import_module
 from pprint import pformat
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, Union, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Union, cast
 
 from scrapy.settings import default_settings
 
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ SETTINGS_PRIORITIES: dict[str, int] = {
 }
 
 
-def get_settings_priority(priority: Union[int, str]) -> int:
+def get_settings_priority(priority: int | str) -> int:
     """
     Small helper function that looks up a given string priority in the
     :attr:`~scrapy.settings.SETTINGS_PRIORITIES` dictionary and returns its
@@ -97,9 +97,7 @@ class BaseSettings(MutableMapping[_SettingsKeyT, Any]):
 
     __default = object()
 
-    def __init__(
-        self, values: _SettingsInputT = None, priority: Union[int, str] = "project"
-    ):
+    def __init__(self, values: _SettingsInputT = None, priority: int | str = "project"):
         self.frozen: bool = False
         self.attributes: dict[_SettingsKeyT, SettingsAttribute] = {}
         if values:
@@ -180,7 +178,7 @@ class BaseSettings(MutableMapping[_SettingsKeyT, Any]):
         return float(self.get(name, default))
 
     def getlist(
-        self, name: _SettingsKeyT, default: Optional[list[Any]] = None
+        self, name: _SettingsKeyT, default: list[Any] | None = None
     ) -> list[Any]:
         """
         Get a setting value as a list. If the setting original type is a list, a
@@ -201,7 +199,7 @@ class BaseSettings(MutableMapping[_SettingsKeyT, Any]):
         return list(value)
 
     def getdict(
-        self, name: _SettingsKeyT, default: Optional[dict[Any, Any]] = None
+        self, name: _SettingsKeyT, default: dict[Any, Any] | None = None
     ) -> dict[Any, Any]:
         """
         Get a setting value as a dictionary. If the setting original type is a
@@ -226,8 +224,8 @@ class BaseSettings(MutableMapping[_SettingsKeyT, Any]):
     def getdictorlist(
         self,
         name: _SettingsKeyT,
-        default: Union[dict[Any, Any], list[Any], tuple[Any], None] = None,
-    ) -> Union[dict[Any, Any], list[Any]]:
+        default: dict[Any, Any] | list[Any] | tuple[Any] | None = None,
+    ) -> dict[Any, Any] | list[Any]:
         """Get a setting value as either a :class:`dict` or a :class:`list`.
 
         If the setting is already a dict or a list, a copy of it will be
@@ -278,7 +276,7 @@ class BaseSettings(MutableMapping[_SettingsKeyT, Any]):
         compbs.update(self[name])
         return compbs
 
-    def getpriority(self, name: _SettingsKeyT) -> Optional[int]:
+    def getpriority(self, name: _SettingsKeyT) -> int | None:
         """
         Return the current numerical priority value of a setting, or ``None`` if
         the given ``name`` does not exist.
@@ -305,7 +303,7 @@ class BaseSettings(MutableMapping[_SettingsKeyT, Any]):
         self.set(name, value)
 
     def set(
-        self, name: _SettingsKeyT, value: Any, priority: Union[int, str] = "project"
+        self, name: _SettingsKeyT, value: Any, priority: int | str = "project"
     ) -> None:
         """
         Store a key/value attribute with a given priority.
@@ -338,7 +336,7 @@ class BaseSettings(MutableMapping[_SettingsKeyT, Any]):
         self,
         name: _SettingsKeyT,
         default: Any = None,
-        priority: Union[int, str] = "project",
+        priority: int | str = "project",
     ) -> Any:
         if name not in self:
             self.set(name, default, priority)
@@ -346,13 +344,11 @@ class BaseSettings(MutableMapping[_SettingsKeyT, Any]):
 
         return self.attributes[name].value
 
-    def setdict(
-        self, values: _SettingsInputT, priority: Union[int, str] = "project"
-    ) -> None:
+    def setdict(self, values: _SettingsInputT, priority: int | str = "project") -> None:
         self.update(values, priority)
 
     def setmodule(
-        self, module: Union[ModuleType, str], priority: Union[int, str] = "project"
+        self, module: ModuleType | str, priority: int | str = "project"
     ) -> None:
         """
         Store settings from a module with a given priority.
@@ -376,7 +372,7 @@ class BaseSettings(MutableMapping[_SettingsKeyT, Any]):
                 self.set(key, getattr(module, key), priority)
 
     # BaseSettings.update() doesn't support all inputs that MutableMapping.update() supports
-    def update(self, values: _SettingsInputT, priority: Union[int, str] = "project") -> None:  # type: ignore[override]
+    def update(self, values: _SettingsInputT, priority: int | str = "project") -> None:  # type: ignore[override]
         """
         Store key/value pairs with a given priority.
 
@@ -409,9 +405,7 @@ class BaseSettings(MutableMapping[_SettingsKeyT, Any]):
                 for name, value in values.items():
                     self.set(name, value, priority)
 
-    def delete(
-        self, name: _SettingsKeyT, priority: Union[int, str] = "project"
-    ) -> None:
+    def delete(self, name: _SettingsKeyT, priority: int | str = "project") -> None:
         if name not in self:
             raise KeyError(name)
         self._assert_mutability()
@@ -525,9 +519,7 @@ class Settings(BaseSettings):
     described on :ref:`topics-settings-ref` already populated.
     """
 
-    def __init__(
-        self, values: _SettingsInputT = None, priority: Union[int, str] = "project"
-    ):
+    def __init__(self, values: _SettingsInputT = None, priority: int | str = "project"):
         # Do not pass kwarg values here. We don't want to promote user-defined
         # dicts, and we want to update, not replace, default dicts with the
         # values given by the user
diff --git a/scrapy/shell.py b/scrapy/shell.py
index dc402e678..31349c4ff 100644
--- a/scrapy/shell.py
+++ b/scrapy/shell.py
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 
 import os
 import signal
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any
 
 from itemadapter import is_item
 from twisted.internet import defer, threads
@@ -37,25 +37,25 @@ class Shell:
     def __init__(
         self,
         crawler: Crawler,
-        update_vars: Optional[Callable[[dict[str, Any]], None]] = None,
-        code: Optional[str] = None,
+        update_vars: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], None] | None = None,
+        code: str | None = None,
     ):
         self.crawler: Crawler = crawler
         self.update_vars: Callable[[dict[str, Any]], None] = update_vars or (
             lambda x: None
         )
         self.item_class: type = load_object(crawler.settings["DEFAULT_ITEM_CLASS"])
-        self.spider: Optional[Spider] = None
+        self.spider: Spider | None = None
         self.inthread: bool = not threadable.isInIOThread()
-        self.code: Optional[str] = code
+        self.code: str | None = code
         self.vars: dict[str, Any] = {}
 
     def start(
         self,
-        url: Optional[str] = None,
-        request: Optional[Request] = None,
-        response: Optional[Response] = None,
-        spider: Optional[Spider] = None,
+        url: str | None = None,
+        request: Request | None = None,
+        response: Response | None = None,
+        spider: Spider | None = None,
         redirect: bool = True,
     ) -> None:
         # disable accidental Ctrl-C key press from shutting down the engine
@@ -97,9 +97,7 @@ class Shell:
                 self.vars, shells=shells, banner=self.vars.pop("banner", "")
             )
 
-    def _schedule(
-        self, request: Request, spider: Optional[Spider]
-    ) -> defer.Deferred[Any]:
+    def _schedule(self, request: Request, spider: Spider | None) -> defer.Deferred[Any]:
         if is_asyncio_reactor_installed():
             # set the asyncio event loop for the current thread
             event_loop_path = self.crawler.settings["ASYNCIO_EVENT_LOOP"]
@@ -111,7 +109,7 @@ class Shell:
         self.crawler.engine.crawl(request)
         return d
 
-    def _open_spider(self, request: Request, spider: Optional[Spider]) -> Spider:
+    def _open_spider(self, request: Request, spider: Spider | None) -> Spider:
         if self.spider:
             return self.spider
 
@@ -126,8 +124,8 @@ class Shell:
 
     def fetch(
         self,
-        request_or_url: Union[Request, str],
-        spider: Optional[Spider] = None,
+        request_or_url: Request | str,
+        spider: Spider | None = None,
         redirect: bool = True,
         **kwargs: Any,
     ) -> None:
@@ -155,9 +153,9 @@ class Shell:
 
     def populate_vars(
         self,
-        response: Optional[Response] = None,
-        request: Optional[Request] = None,
-        spider: Optional[Spider] = None,
+        response: Response | None = None,
+        request: Request | None = None,
+        spider: Spider | None = None,
     ) -> None:
         import scrapy
 
diff --git a/scrapy/spidermiddlewares/httperror.py b/scrapy/spidermiddlewares/httperror.py
index afab2eac2..42619ec7f 100644
--- a/scrapy/spidermiddlewares/httperror.py
+++ b/scrapy/spidermiddlewares/httperror.py
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ See documentation in docs/topics/spider-middleware.rst
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 import logging
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any
 
 from scrapy.exceptions import IgnoreRequest
 
@@ -65,7 +65,7 @@ class HttpErrorMiddleware:
 
     def process_spider_exception(
         self, response: Response, exception: Exception, spider: Spider
-    ) -> Optional[Iterable[Any]]:
+    ) -> Iterable[Any] | None:
         if isinstance(exception, HttpError):
             assert spider.crawler.stats
             spider.crawler.stats.inc_value("httperror/response_ignored_count")
diff --git a/scrapy/spidermiddlewares/referer.py b/scrapy/spidermiddlewares/referer.py
index 8784e4b05..bdf1f168a 100644
--- a/scrapy/spidermiddlewares/referer.py
+++ b/scrapy/spidermiddlewares/referer.py
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ originated it.
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 import warnings
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, Union, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, cast
 from urllib.parse import urlparse
 
 from w3lib.url import safe_url_string
@@ -50,20 +50,20 @@ class ReferrerPolicy:
     NOREFERRER_SCHEMES: tuple[str, ...] = LOCAL_SCHEMES
     name: str
 
-    def referrer(self, response_url: str, request_url: str) -> Optional[str]:
+    def referrer(self, response_url: str, request_url: str) -> str | None:
         raise NotImplementedError()
 
-    def stripped_referrer(self, url: str) -> Optional[str]:
+    def stripped_referrer(self, url: str) -> str | None:
         if urlparse(url).scheme not in self.NOREFERRER_SCHEMES:
             return self.strip_url(url)
         return None
 
-    def origin_referrer(self, url: str) -> Optional[str]:
+    def origin_referrer(self, url: str) -> str | None:
         if urlparse(url).scheme not in self.NOREFERRER_SCHEMES:
             return self.origin(url)
         return None
 
-    def strip_url(self, url: str, origin_only: bool = False) -> Optional[str]:
+    def strip_url(self, url: str, origin_only: bool = False) -> str | None:
         """
         https://www.w3.org/TR/referrer-policy/#strip-url
 
@@ -87,7 +87,7 @@ class ReferrerPolicy:
             origin_only=origin_only,
         )
 
-    def origin(self, url: str) -> Optional[str]:
+    def origin(self, url: str) -> str | None:
         """Return serialized origin (scheme, host, path) for a request or response URL."""
         return self.strip_url(url, origin_only=True)
 
@@ -113,7 +113,7 @@ class NoReferrerPolicy(ReferrerPolicy):
 
     name: str = POLICY_NO_REFERRER
 
-    def referrer(self, response_url: str, request_url: str) -> Optional[str]:
+    def referrer(self, response_url: str, request_url: str) -> str | None:
         return None
 
 
@@ -134,7 +134,7 @@ class NoReferrerWhenDowngradePolicy(ReferrerPolicy):
 
     name: str = POLICY_NO_REFERRER_WHEN_DOWNGRADE
 
-    def referrer(self, response_url: str, request_url: str) -> Optional[str]:
+    def referrer(self, response_url: str, request_url: str) -> str | None:
         if not self.tls_protected(response_url) or self.tls_protected(request_url):
             return self.stripped_referrer(response_url)
         return None
@@ -153,7 +153,7 @@ class SameOriginPolicy(ReferrerPolicy):
 
     name: str = POLICY_SAME_ORIGIN
 
-    def referrer(self, response_url: str, request_url: str) -> Optional[str]:
+    def referrer(self, response_url: str, request_url: str) -> str | None:
         if self.origin(response_url) == self.origin(request_url):
             return self.stripped_referrer(response_url)
         return None
@@ -171,7 +171,7 @@ class OriginPolicy(ReferrerPolicy):
 
     name: str = POLICY_ORIGIN
 
-    def referrer(self, response_url: str, request_url: str) -> Optional[str]:
+    def referrer(self, response_url: str, request_url: str) -> str | None:
         return self.origin_referrer(response_url)
 
 
@@ -191,7 +191,7 @@ class StrictOriginPolicy(ReferrerPolicy):
 
     name: str = POLICY_STRICT_ORIGIN
 
-    def referrer(self, response_url: str, request_url: str) -> Optional[str]:
+    def referrer(self, response_url: str, request_url: str) -> str | None:
         if (
             self.tls_protected(response_url)
             and self.potentially_trustworthy(request_url)
@@ -215,7 +215,7 @@ class OriginWhenCrossOriginPolicy(ReferrerPolicy):
 
     name: str = POLICY_ORIGIN_WHEN_CROSS_ORIGIN
 
-    def referrer(self, response_url: str, request_url: str) -> Optional[str]:
+    def referrer(self, response_url: str, request_url: str) -> str | None:
         origin = self.origin(response_url)
         if origin == self.origin(request_url):
             return self.stripped_referrer(response_url)
@@ -242,7 +242,7 @@ class StrictOriginWhenCrossOriginPolicy(ReferrerPolicy):
 
     name: str = POLICY_STRICT_ORIGIN_WHEN_CROSS_ORIGIN
 
-    def referrer(self, response_url: str, request_url: str) -> Optional[str]:
+    def referrer(self, response_url: str, request_url: str) -> str | None:
         origin = self.origin(response_url)
         if origin == self.origin(request_url):
             return self.stripped_referrer(response_url)
@@ -271,7 +271,7 @@ class UnsafeUrlPolicy(ReferrerPolicy):
 
     name: str = POLICY_UNSAFE_URL
 
-    def referrer(self, response_url: str, request_url: str) -> Optional[str]:
+    def referrer(self, response_url: str, request_url: str) -> str | None:
         return self.stripped_referrer(response_url)
 
 
@@ -307,7 +307,7 @@ _policy_classes[""] = NoReferrerWhenDowngradePolicy
 
 def _load_policy_class(
     policy: str, warning_only: bool = False
-) -> Optional[type[ReferrerPolicy]]:
+) -> type[ReferrerPolicy] | None:
     """
     Expect a string for the path to the policy class,
     otherwise try to interpret the string as a standard value
@@ -331,7 +331,7 @@ def _load_policy_class(
 
 
 class RefererMiddleware:
-    def __init__(self, settings: Optional[BaseSettings] = None):
+    def __init__(self, settings: BaseSettings | None = None):
         self.default_policy: type[ReferrerPolicy] = DefaultReferrerPolicy
         if settings is not None:
             settings_policy = _load_policy_class(settings.get("REFERRER_POLICY"))
@@ -349,9 +349,7 @@ class RefererMiddleware:
 
         return mw
 
-    def policy(
-        self, resp_or_url: Union[Response, str], request: Request
-    ) -> ReferrerPolicy:
+    def policy(self, resp_or_url: Response | str, request: Request) -> ReferrerPolicy:
         """
         Determine Referrer-Policy to use from a parent Response (or URL),
         and a Request to be sent.
diff --git a/scrapy/spiders/__init__.py b/scrapy/spiders/__init__.py
index 8220aca28..6136dabc7 100644
--- a/scrapy/spiders/__init__.py
+++ b/scrapy/spiders/__init__.py
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ See documentation in docs/topics/spiders.rst
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 import logging
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, cast
 
 from scrapy import signals
 from scrapy.http import Request, Response
@@ -34,9 +34,9 @@ class Spider(object_ref):
     """
 
     name: str
-    custom_settings: Optional[dict[_SettingsKeyT, Any]] = None
+    custom_settings: dict[_SettingsKeyT, Any] | None = None
 
-    def __init__(self, name: Optional[str] = None, **kwargs: Any):
+    def __init__(self, name: str | None = None, **kwargs: Any):
         if name is not None:
             self.name: str = name
         elif not getattr(self, "name", None):
@@ -103,10 +103,10 @@ class Spider(object_ref):
         return url_is_from_spider(request.url, cls)
 
     @staticmethod
-    def close(spider: Spider, reason: str) -> Optional[Deferred[None]]:
+    def close(spider: Spider, reason: str) -> Deferred[None] | None:
         closed = getattr(spider, "closed", None)
         if callable(closed):
-            return cast("Optional[Deferred[None]]", closed(reason))
+            return cast("Deferred[None] | None", closed(reason))
         return None
 
     def __repr__(self) -> str:
diff --git a/scrapy/spiders/crawl.py b/scrapy/spiders/crawl.py
index d628f49f6..087049425 100644
--- a/scrapy/spiders/crawl.py
+++ b/scrapy/spiders/crawl.py
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 
 import copy
 from collections.abc import AsyncIterable, Awaitable, Callable
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, TypeVar, Union, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, TypeVar, cast
 
 from twisted.python.failure import Failure
 
@@ -39,15 +39,11 @@ def _identity(x: _T) -> _T:
     return x
 
 
-def _identity_process_request(
-    request: Request, response: Response
-) -> Optional[Request]:
+def _identity_process_request(request: Request, response: Response) -> Request | None:
     return request
 
 
-def _get_method(
-    method: Union[Callable, str, None], spider: Spider
-) -> Optional[Callable]:
+def _get_method(method: Callable | str | None, spider: Spider) -> Callable | None:
     if callable(method):
         return method
     if isinstance(method, str):
@@ -61,20 +57,20 @@ _default_link_extractor = LinkExtractor()
 class Rule:
     def __init__(
         self,
-        link_extractor: Optional[LinkExtractor] = None,
-        callback: Union[CallbackT, str, None] = None,
-        cb_kwargs: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
-        follow: Optional[bool] = None,
-        process_links: Union[ProcessLinksT, str, None] = None,
-        process_request: Union[ProcessRequestT, str, None] = None,
-        errback: Union[Callable[[Failure], Any], str, None] = None,
+        link_extractor: LinkExtractor | None = None,
+        callback: CallbackT | str | None = None,
+        cb_kwargs: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
+        follow: bool | None = None,
+        process_links: ProcessLinksT | str | None = None,
+        process_request: ProcessRequestT | str | None = None,
+        errback: Callable[[Failure], Any] | str | None = None,
     ):
         self.link_extractor: LinkExtractor = link_extractor or _default_link_extractor
-        self.callback: Union[CallbackT, str, None] = callback
-        self.errback: Union[Callable[[Failure], Any], str, None] = errback
+        self.callback: CallbackT | str | None = callback
+        self.errback: Callable[[Failure], Any] | str | None = errback
         self.cb_kwargs: dict[str, Any] = cb_kwargs or {}
-        self.process_links: Union[ProcessLinksT, str] = process_links or _identity
-        self.process_request: Union[ProcessRequestT, str] = (
+        self.process_links: ProcessLinksT | str = process_links or _identity
+        self.process_request: ProcessRequestT | str = (
             process_request or _identity_process_request
         )
         self.follow: bool = follow if follow is not None else not callback
@@ -124,7 +120,7 @@ class CrawlSpider(Spider):
             meta={"rule": rule_index, "link_text": link.text},
         )
 
-    def _requests_to_follow(self, response: Response) -> Iterable[Optional[Request]]:
+    def _requests_to_follow(self, response: Response) -> Iterable[Request | None]:
         if not isinstance(response, HtmlResponse):
             return
         seen: set[Link] = set()
@@ -157,7 +153,7 @@ class CrawlSpider(Spider):
     async def _parse_response(
         self,
         response: Response,
-        callback: Optional[CallbackT],
+        callback: CallbackT | None,
         cb_kwargs: dict[str, Any],
         follow: bool = True,
     ) -> AsyncIterable[Any]:
@@ -176,7 +172,7 @@ class CrawlSpider(Spider):
                 yield request_or_item
 
     def _handle_failure(
-        self, failure: Failure, errback: Optional[Callable[[Failure], Any]]
+        self, failure: Failure, errback: Callable[[Failure], Any] | None
     ) -> Iterable[Any]:
         if errback:
             results = errback(failure) or ()
diff --git a/scrapy/spiders/feed.py b/scrapy/spiders/feed.py
index 0ddef1f32..395183613 100644
--- a/scrapy/spiders/feed.py
+++ b/scrapy/spiders/feed.py
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ See documentation in docs/topics/spiders.rst
 
 from __future__ import annotations
 
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any
 
 from scrapy.exceptions import NotConfigured, NotSupported
 from scrapy.http import Response, TextResponse
@@ -117,13 +117,13 @@ class CSVFeedSpider(Spider):
     and the file's headers.
     """
 
-    delimiter: Optional[str] = (
+    delimiter: str | None = (
         None  # When this is None, python's csv module's default delimiter is used
     )
-    quotechar: Optional[str] = (
+    quotechar: str | None = (
         None  # When this is None, python's csv module's default quotechar is used
     )
-    headers: Optional[list[str]] = None
+    headers: list[str] | None = None
 
     def process_results(
         self, response: Response, results: Iterable[Any]
diff --git a/scrapy/spiders/init.py b/scrapy/spiders/init.py
index ebe288b83..4ec2919f7 100644
--- a/scrapy/spiders/init.py
+++ b/scrapy/spiders/init.py
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 from collections.abc import Iterable
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, cast
 
 from scrapy import Request
 from scrapy.spiders import Spider
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ class InitSpider(Spider):
         self._postinit_reqs: Iterable[Request] = super().start_requests()
         return cast(Iterable[Request], iterate_spider_output(self.init_request()))
 
-    def initialized(self, response: Optional[Response] = None) -> Any:
+    def initialized(self, response: Response | None = None) -> Any:
         """This method must be set as the callback of your last initialization
         request. See self.init_request() docstring for more info.
         """
diff --git a/scrapy/spiders/sitemap.py b/scrapy/spiders/sitemap.py
index 945539d7b..91c7e3be9 100644
--- a/scrapy/spiders/sitemap.py
+++ b/scrapy/spiders/sitemap.py
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 
 import logging
 import re
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, Union, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, cast
 
 from scrapy.http import Request, Response, XmlResponse
 from scrapy.spiders import Spider
@@ -24,10 +24,10 @@ logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
 
 class SitemapSpider(Spider):
     sitemap_urls: Sequence[str] = ()
-    sitemap_rules: Sequence[
-        tuple[Union[re.Pattern[str], str], Union[str, CallbackT]]
-    ] = [("", "parse")]
-    sitemap_follow: Sequence[Union[re.Pattern[str], str]] = [""]
+    sitemap_rules: Sequence[tuple[re.Pattern[str] | str, str | CallbackT]] = [
+        ("", "parse")
+    ]
+    sitemap_follow: Sequence[re.Pattern[str] | str] = [""]
     sitemap_alternate_links: bool = False
     _max_size: int
     _warn_size: int
@@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ class SitemapSpider(Spider):
                             yield Request(loc, callback=c)
                             break
 
-    def _get_sitemap_body(self, response: Response) -> Optional[bytes]:
+    def _get_sitemap_body(self, response: Response) -> bytes | None:
         """Return the sitemap body contained in the given response,
         or None if the response is not a sitemap.
         """
@@ -127,7 +127,7 @@ class SitemapSpider(Spider):
         return None
 
 
-def regex(x: Union[re.Pattern[str], str]) -> re.Pattern[str]:
+def regex(x: re.Pattern[str] | str) -> re.Pattern[str]:
     if isinstance(x, str):
         return re.compile(x)
     return x
diff --git a/scrapy/squeues.py b/scrapy/squeues.py
index 767a53db8..7732187fd 100644
--- a/scrapy/squeues.py
+++ b/scrapy/squeues.py
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 import marshal
 import pickle  # nosec
 from pathlib import Path
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any
 
 from queuelib import queue
 
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ if TYPE_CHECKING:
 
 def _with_mkdir(queue_class: type[queue.BaseQueue]) -> type[queue.BaseQueue]:
     class DirectoriesCreated(queue_class):  # type: ignore[valid-type,misc]
-        def __init__(self, path: Union[str, PathLike], *args: Any, **kwargs: Any):
+        def __init__(self, path: str | PathLike, *args: Any, **kwargs: Any):
             dirname = Path(path).parent
             if not dirname.exists():
                 dirname.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True)
@@ -45,13 +45,13 @@ def _serializable_queue(
             s = serialize(obj)
             super().push(s)
 
-        def pop(self) -> Optional[Any]:
+        def pop(self) -> Any | None:
             s = super().pop()
             if s:
                 return deserialize(s)
             return None
 
-        def peek(self) -> Optional[Any]:
+        def peek(self) -> Any | None:
             """Returns the next object to be returned by :meth:`pop`,
             but without removing it from the queue.
 
@@ -89,13 +89,13 @@ def _scrapy_serialization_queue(
             request_dict = request.to_dict(spider=self.spider)
             super().push(request_dict)
 
-        def pop(self) -> Optional[Request]:
+        def pop(self) -> Request | None:
             request = super().pop()
             if not request:
                 return None
             return request_from_dict(request, spider=self.spider)
 
-        def peek(self) -> Optional[Request]:
+        def peek(self) -> Request | None:
             """Returns the next object to be returned by :meth:`pop`,
             but without removing it from the queue.
 
@@ -118,7 +118,7 @@ def _scrapy_non_serialization_queue(
         def from_crawler(cls, crawler: Crawler, *args: Any, **kwargs: Any) -> Self:
             return cls()
 
-        def peek(self) -> Optional[Any]:
+        def peek(self) -> Any | None:
             """Returns the next object to be returned by :meth:`pop`,
             but without removing it from the queue.
 
diff --git a/scrapy/statscollectors.py b/scrapy/statscollectors.py
index 63c82ec6d..f3dd0f8e7 100644
--- a/scrapy/statscollectors.py
+++ b/scrapy/statscollectors.py
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 
 import logging
 import pprint
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
     from scrapy import Spider
@@ -25,32 +25,32 @@ class StatsCollector:
         self._stats: StatsT = {}
 
     def get_value(
-        self, key: str, default: Any = None, spider: Optional[Spider] = None
+        self, key: str, default: Any = None, spider: Spider | None = None
     ) -> Any:
         return self._stats.get(key, default)
 
-    def get_stats(self, spider: Optional[Spider] = None) -> StatsT:
+    def get_stats(self, spider: Spider | None = None) -> StatsT:
         return self._stats
 
-    def set_value(self, key: str, value: Any, spider: Optional[Spider] = None) -> None:
+    def set_value(self, key: str, value: Any, spider: Spider | None = None) -> None:
         self._stats[key] = value
 
-    def set_stats(self, stats: StatsT, spider: Optional[Spider] = None) -> None:
+    def set_stats(self, stats: StatsT, spider: Spider | None = None) -> None:
         self._stats = stats
 
     def inc_value(
-        self, key: str, count: int = 1, start: int = 0, spider: Optional[Spider] = None
+        self, key: str, count: int = 1, start: int = 0, spider: Spider | None = None
     ) -> None:
         d = self._stats
         d[key] = d.setdefault(key, start) + count
 
-    def max_value(self, key: str, value: Any, spider: Optional[Spider] = None) -> None:
+    def max_value(self, key: str, value: Any, spider: Spider | None = None) -> None:
         self._stats[key] = max(self._stats.setdefault(key, value), value)
 
-    def min_value(self, key: str, value: Any, spider: Optional[Spider] = None) -> None:
+    def min_value(self, key: str, value: Any, spider: Spider | None = None) -> None:
         self._stats[key] = min(self._stats.setdefault(key, value), value)
 
-    def clear_stats(self, spider: Optional[Spider] = None) -> None:
+    def clear_stats(self, spider: Spider | None = None) -> None:
         self._stats.clear()
 
     def open_spider(self, spider: Spider) -> None:
@@ -79,23 +79,23 @@ class MemoryStatsCollector(StatsCollector):
 
 class DummyStatsCollector(StatsCollector):
     def get_value(
-        self, key: str, default: Any = None, spider: Optional[Spider] = None
+        self, key: str, default: Any = None, spider: Spider | None = None
     ) -> Any:
         return default
 
-    def set_value(self, key: str, value: Any, spider: Optional[Spider] = None) -> None:
+    def set_value(self, key: str, value: Any, spider: Spider | None = None) -> None:
         pass
 
-    def set_stats(self, stats: StatsT, spider: Optional[Spider] = None) -> None:
+    def set_stats(self, stats: StatsT, spider: Spider | None = None) -> None:
         pass
 
     def inc_value(
-        self, key: str, count: int = 1, start: int = 0, spider: Optional[Spider] = None
+        self, key: str, count: int = 1, start: int = 0, spider: Spider | None = None
     ) -> None:
         pass
 
-    def max_value(self, key: str, value: Any, spider: Optional[Spider] = None) -> None:
+    def max_value(self, key: str, value: Any, spider: Spider | None = None) -> None:
         pass
 
-    def min_value(self, key: str, value: Any, spider: Optional[Spider] = None) -> None:
+    def min_value(self, key: str, value: Any, spider: Spider | None = None) -> None:
         pass
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/asyncgen.py b/scrapy/utils/asyncgen.py
index f1505e4bd..905959c25 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/asyncgen.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/asyncgen.py
@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from collections.abc import AsyncGenerator, AsyncIterable, Iterable
-from typing import TypeVar, Union
+from typing import TypeVar
 
 _T = TypeVar("_T")
 
@@ -12,8 +14,8 @@ async def collect_asyncgen(result: AsyncIterable[_T]) -> list[_T]:
 
 
 async def as_async_generator(
-    it: Union[Iterable[_T], AsyncIterable[_T]]
-) -> AsyncGenerator[_T, None]:
+    it: Iterable[_T] | AsyncIterable[_T],
+) -> AsyncGenerator[_T]:
     """Wraps an iterable (sync or async) into an async generator."""
     if isinstance(it, AsyncIterable):
         async for r in it:
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/conf.py b/scrapy/utils/conf.py
index 463bbb5df..64cd31c4b 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/conf.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/conf.py
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ from collections.abc import Iterable
 from configparser import ConfigParser
 from operator import itemgetter
 from pathlib import Path
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Callable, Optional, Union, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Callable, cast
 
 from scrapy.exceptions import ScrapyDeprecationWarning, UsageError
 from scrapy.settings import BaseSettings
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ def build_component_list(
                 "please update your settings"
             )
 
-    def _map_keys(compdict: Mapping[Any, Any]) -> Union[BaseSettings, dict[Any, Any]]:
+    def _map_keys(compdict: Mapping[Any, Any]) -> BaseSettings | dict[Any, Any]:
         if isinstance(compdict, BaseSettings):
             compbs = BaseSettings()
             for k, v in compdict.items():
@@ -86,8 +86,8 @@ def arglist_to_dict(arglist: list[str]) -> dict[str, str]:
 
 
 def closest_scrapy_cfg(
-    path: Union[str, os.PathLike] = ".",
-    prevpath: Optional[Union[str, os.PathLike]] = None,
+    path: str | os.PathLike = ".",
+    prevpath: str | os.PathLike | None = None,
 ) -> str:
     """Return the path to the closest scrapy.cfg file by traversing the current
     directory and its parents
@@ -159,8 +159,8 @@ def feed_complete_default_values_from_settings(
 def feed_process_params_from_cli(
     settings: BaseSettings,
     output: list[str],
-    output_format: Optional[str] = None,
-    overwrite_output: Optional[list[str]] = None,
+    output_format: str | None = None,
+    overwrite_output: list[str] | None = None,
 ) -> dict[str, dict[str, Any]]:
     """
     Receives feed export params (from the 'crawl' or 'runspider' commands),
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/console.py b/scrapy/utils/console.py
index 3b5596ab7..aecd3fdb7 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/console.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/console.py
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 
 from collections.abc import Callable
 from functools import wraps
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
     from collections.abc import Iterable
@@ -100,7 +100,7 @@ DEFAULT_PYTHON_SHELLS: KnownShellsT = {
 
 
 def get_shell_embed_func(
-    shells: Optional[Iterable[str]] = None, known_shells: Optional[KnownShellsT] = None
+    shells: Iterable[str] | None = None, known_shells: KnownShellsT | None = None
 ) -> Any:
     """Return the first acceptable shell-embed function
     from a given list of shell names.
@@ -120,9 +120,9 @@ def get_shell_embed_func(
 
 
 def start_python_console(
-    namespace: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
+    namespace: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
     banner: str = "",
-    shells: Optional[Iterable[str]] = None,
+    shells: Iterable[str] | None = None,
 ) -> None:
     """Start Python console bound to the given namespace.
     Readline support and tab completion will be used on Unix, if available.
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/curl.py b/scrapy/utils/curl.py
index 9c7f63848..bfdd4dc8a 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/curl.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/curl.py
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ import argparse
 import warnings
 from http.cookies import SimpleCookie
 from shlex import split
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, NoReturn, Optional, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, NoReturn
 from urllib.parse import urlparse
 
 from w3lib.http import basic_auth_header
@@ -18,8 +18,8 @@ class DataAction(argparse.Action):
         self,
         parser: argparse.ArgumentParser,
         namespace: argparse.Namespace,
-        values: Union[str, Sequence[Any], None],
-        option_string: Optional[str] = None,
+        values: str | Sequence[Any] | None,
+        option_string: str | None = None,
     ) -> None:
         value = str(values)
         if value.startswith("$"):
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/datatypes.py b/scrapy/utils/datatypes.py
index c78325676..98ecb2f02 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/datatypes.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/datatypes.py
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ import warnings
 import weakref
 from collections import OrderedDict
 from collections.abc import Mapping
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, AnyStr, Optional, TypeVar, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, AnyStr, TypeVar
 
 from scrapy.exceptions import ScrapyDeprecationWarning
 
@@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ class CaselessDict(dict):
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        seq: Union[Mapping[AnyStr, Any], Iterable[tuple[AnyStr, Any]], None] = None,
+        seq: Mapping[AnyStr, Any] | Iterable[tuple[AnyStr, Any]] | None = None,
     ):
         super().__init__()
         if seq:
@@ -84,7 +84,7 @@ class CaselessDict(dict):
         return dict.setdefault(self, self.normkey(key), self.normvalue(def_val))  # type: ignore[arg-type]
 
     # doesn't fully implement MutableMapping.update()
-    def update(self, seq: Union[Mapping[AnyStr, Any], Iterable[tuple[AnyStr, Any]]]) -> None:  # type: ignore[override]
+    def update(self, seq: Mapping[AnyStr, Any] | Iterable[tuple[AnyStr, Any]]) -> None:  # type: ignore[override]
         seq = seq.items() if isinstance(seq, Mapping) else seq
         iseq = ((self.normkey(k), self.normvalue(v)) for k, v in seq)
         super().update(iseq)
@@ -145,9 +145,9 @@ class LocalCache(OrderedDict[_KT, _VT]):
     Older items expires first.
     """
 
-    def __init__(self, limit: Optional[int] = None):
+    def __init__(self, limit: int | None = None):
         super().__init__()
-        self.limit: Optional[int] = limit
+        self.limit: int | None = limit
 
     def __setitem__(self, key: _KT, value: _VT) -> None:
         if self.limit:
@@ -168,7 +168,7 @@ class LocalWeakReferencedCache(weakref.WeakKeyDictionary):
     it cannot be instantiated with an initial dictionary.
     """
 
-    def __init__(self, limit: Optional[int] = None):
+    def __init__(self, limit: int | None = None):
         super().__init__()
         self.data: LocalCache = LocalCache(limit=limit)
 
@@ -178,7 +178,7 @@ class LocalWeakReferencedCache(weakref.WeakKeyDictionary):
         except TypeError:
             pass  # key is not weak-referenceable, skip caching
 
-    def __getitem__(self, key: _KT) -> Optional[_VT]:  # type: ignore[override]
+    def __getitem__(self, key: _KT) -> _VT | None:  # type: ignore[override]
         try:
             return super().__getitem__(key)
         except (TypeError, KeyError):
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/defer.py b/scrapy/utils/defer.py
index aeacadb1c..9ca6c6a24 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/defer.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/defer.py
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ from asyncio import Future
 from collections.abc import Awaitable, Coroutine, Iterable, Iterator
 from functools import wraps
 from types import CoroutineType
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Generic, Optional, TypeVar, Union, cast, overload
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Generic, TypeVar, Union, cast, overload
 
 from twisted.internet import defer
 from twisted.internet.defer import Deferred, DeferredList, ensureDeferred
@@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ def mustbe_deferred(
 
 
 def mustbe_deferred(
-    f: Callable[_P, Union[Deferred[_T], Coroutine[Deferred[Any], Any, _T], _T]],
+    f: Callable[_P, Deferred[_T] | Coroutine[Deferred[Any], Any, _T] | _T],
     *args: _P.args,
     **kw: _P.kwargs,
 ) -> Deferred[_T]:
@@ -179,17 +179,17 @@ class _AsyncCooperatorAdapter(Iterator, Generic[_T]):
     def __init__(
         self,
         aiterable: AsyncIterable[_T],
-        callable: Callable[Concatenate[_T, _P], Optional[Deferred[Any]]],
+        callable: Callable[Concatenate[_T, _P], Deferred[Any] | None],
         *callable_args: _P.args,
         **callable_kwargs: _P.kwargs,
     ):
         self.aiterator: AsyncIterator[_T] = aiterable.__aiter__()
-        self.callable: Callable[Concatenate[_T, _P], Optional[Deferred[Any]]] = callable
+        self.callable: Callable[Concatenate[_T, _P], Deferred[Any] | None] = callable
         self.callable_args: tuple[Any, ...] = callable_args
         self.callable_kwargs: dict[str, Any] = callable_kwargs
         self.finished: bool = False
         self.waiting_deferreds: list[Deferred[Any]] = []
-        self.anext_deferred: Optional[Deferred[_T]] = None
+        self.anext_deferred: Deferred[_T] | None = None
 
     def _callback(self, result: _T) -> None:
         # This gets called when the result from aiterator.__anext__() is available.
@@ -237,7 +237,7 @@ class _AsyncCooperatorAdapter(Iterator, Generic[_T]):
 def parallel_async(
     async_iterable: AsyncIterable[_T],
     count: int,
-    callable: Callable[Concatenate[_T, _P], Optional[Deferred[Any]]],
+    callable: Callable[Concatenate[_T, _P], Deferred[Any] | None],
     *args: _P.args,
     **named: _P.kwargs,
 ) -> Deferred[list[tuple[bool, Iterator[Deferred[Any]]]]]:
@@ -362,7 +362,7 @@ def deferred_from_coro(o: _CT) -> Deferred: ...
 def deferred_from_coro(o: _T) -> _T: ...
 
 
-def deferred_from_coro(o: _T) -> Union[Deferred, _T]:
+def deferred_from_coro(o: _T) -> Deferred | _T:
     """Converts a coroutine into a Deferred, or returns the object as is if it isn't a coroutine"""
     if isinstance(o, Deferred):
         return o
@@ -433,7 +433,7 @@ def deferred_to_future(d: Deferred[_T]) -> Future[_T]:
     return d.asFuture(_get_asyncio_event_loop())
 
 
-def maybe_deferred_to_future(d: Deferred[_T]) -> Union[Deferred[_T], Future[_T]]:
+def maybe_deferred_to_future(d: Deferred[_T]) -> Deferred[_T] | Future[_T]:
     """
     .. versionadded:: 2.6.0
 
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/deprecate.py b/scrapy/utils/deprecate.py
index 9b0d476a1..32430cd6c 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/deprecate.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/deprecate.py
@@ -1,8 +1,10 @@
 """Some helpers for deprecation messages"""
 
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import inspect
 import warnings
-from typing import Any, Optional, overload
+from typing import Any, overload
 
 from scrapy.exceptions import ScrapyDeprecationWarning
 
@@ -20,11 +22,11 @@ def attribute(obj: Any, oldattr: str, newattr: str, version: str = "0.12") -> No
 def create_deprecated_class(
     name: str,
     new_class: type,
-    clsdict: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
+    clsdict: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
     warn_category: type[Warning] = ScrapyDeprecationWarning,
     warn_once: bool = True,
-    old_class_path: Optional[str] = None,
-    new_class_path: Optional[str] = None,
+    old_class_path: str | None = None,
+    new_class_path: str | None = None,
     subclass_warn_message: str = "{cls} inherits from deprecated class {old}, please inherit from {new}.",
     instance_warn_message: str = "{cls} is deprecated, instantiate {new} instead.",
 ) -> type:
@@ -55,7 +57,7 @@ def create_deprecated_class(
 
     # https://github.com/python/mypy/issues/4177
     class DeprecatedClass(new_class.__class__):  # type: ignore[misc, name-defined]
-        deprecated_class: Optional[type] = None
+        deprecated_class: type | None = None
         warned_on_subclass: bool = False
 
         def __new__(
@@ -128,7 +130,7 @@ def create_deprecated_class(
     return deprecated_cls
 
 
-def _clspath(cls: type, forced: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
+def _clspath(cls: type, forced: str | None = None) -> str:
     if forced is not None:
         return forced
     return f"{cls.__module__}.{cls.__name__}"
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/httpobj.py b/scrapy/utils/httpobj.py
index 3cf9585ec..58b4539bf 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/httpobj.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/httpobj.py
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
 
 from __future__ import annotations
 
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 from urllib.parse import ParseResult, urlparse
 from weakref import WeakKeyDictionary
 
@@ -10,12 +10,12 @@ if TYPE_CHECKING:
     from scrapy.http import Request, Response
 
 
-_urlparse_cache: WeakKeyDictionary[Union[Request, Response], ParseResult] = (
+_urlparse_cache: WeakKeyDictionary[Request | Response, ParseResult] = (
     WeakKeyDictionary()
 )
 
 
-def urlparse_cached(request_or_response: Union[Request, Response]) -> ParseResult:
+def urlparse_cached(request_or_response: Request | Response) -> ParseResult:
     """Return urlparse.urlparse caching the result, where the argument can be a
     Request or Response object
     """
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/iterators.py b/scrapy/utils/iterators.py
index a4d339adc..ba58d939c 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/iterators.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/iterators.py
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ import csv
 import logging
 import re
 from io import StringIO
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Literal, Optional, Union, cast, overload
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Literal, cast, overload
 from warnings import warn
 
 from lxml import etree  # nosec
@@ -20,7 +20,7 @@ if TYPE_CHECKING:
 logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
 
 
-def xmliter(obj: Union[Response, str, bytes], nodename: str) -> Iterator[Selector]:
+def xmliter(obj: Response | str | bytes, nodename: str) -> Iterator[Selector]:
     """Return a iterator of Selector's over all nodes of a XML document,
        given the name of the node to iterate. Useful for parsing XML feeds.
 
@@ -77,9 +77,9 @@ def xmliter(obj: Union[Response, str, bytes], nodename: str) -> Iterator[Selecto
 
 
 def xmliter_lxml(
-    obj: Union[Response, str, bytes],
+    obj: Response | str | bytes,
     nodename: str,
-    namespace: Optional[str] = None,
+    namespace: str | None = None,
     prefix: str = "x",
 ) -> Iterator[Selector]:
     reader = _StreamReader(obj)
@@ -120,9 +120,9 @@ def xmliter_lxml(
 
 
 class _StreamReader:
-    def __init__(self, obj: Union[Response, str, bytes]):
+    def __init__(self, obj: Response | str | bytes):
         self._ptr: int = 0
-        self._text: Union[str, bytes]
+        self._text: str | bytes
         if isinstance(obj, TextResponse):
             self._text, self.encoding = obj.body, obj.encoding
         elif isinstance(obj, Response):
@@ -154,11 +154,11 @@ class _StreamReader:
 
 
 def csviter(
-    obj: Union[Response, str, bytes],
-    delimiter: Optional[str] = None,
-    headers: Optional[list[str]] = None,
-    encoding: Optional[str] = None,
-    quotechar: Optional[str] = None,
+    obj: Response | str | bytes,
+    delimiter: str | None = None,
+    headers: list[str] | None = None,
+    encoding: str | None = None,
+    quotechar: str | None = None,
 ) -> Iterator[dict[str, str]]:
     """Returns an iterator of dictionaries from the given csv object
 
@@ -214,22 +214,18 @@ def csviter(
 
 
 @overload
-def _body_or_str(obj: Union[Response, str, bytes]) -> str: ...
+def _body_or_str(obj: Response | str | bytes) -> str: ...
 
 
 @overload
-def _body_or_str(obj: Union[Response, str, bytes], unicode: Literal[True]) -> str: ...
+def _body_or_str(obj: Response | str | bytes, unicode: Literal[True]) -> str: ...
 
 
 @overload
-def _body_or_str(
-    obj: Union[Response, str, bytes], unicode: Literal[False]
-) -> bytes: ...
+def _body_or_str(obj: Response | str | bytes, unicode: Literal[False]) -> bytes: ...
 
 
-def _body_or_str(
-    obj: Union[Response, str, bytes], unicode: bool = True
-) -> Union[str, bytes]:
+def _body_or_str(obj: Response | str | bytes, unicode: bool = True) -> str | bytes:
     expected_types = (Response, str, bytes)
     if not isinstance(obj, expected_types):
         expected_types_str = " or ".join(t.__name__ for t in expected_types)
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/job.py b/scrapy/utils/job.py
index 488c7994b..37e6aeb51 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/job.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/job.py
@@ -1,14 +1,14 @@
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 from pathlib import Path
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Optional
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
     from scrapy.settings import BaseSettings
 
 
-def job_dir(settings: BaseSettings) -> Optional[str]:
-    path: Optional[str] = settings["JOBDIR"]
+def job_dir(settings: BaseSettings) -> str | None:
+    path: str | None = settings["JOBDIR"]
     if not path:
         return None
     if not Path(path).exists():
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/log.py b/scrapy/utils/log.py
index 2b90c6b36..c3808426a 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/log.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/log.py
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ import sys
 from collections.abc import MutableMapping
 from logging.config import dictConfig
 from types import TracebackType
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, Union, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, cast
 
 from twisted.python import log as twisted_log
 from twisted.python.failure import Failure
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
 
 def failure_to_exc_info(
     failure: Failure,
-) -> Optional[tuple[type[BaseException], BaseException, Optional[TracebackType]]]:
+) -> tuple[type[BaseException], BaseException, TracebackType | None] | None:
     """Extract exc_info from Failure instances"""
     if isinstance(failure, Failure):
         assert failure.type
@@ -50,7 +50,7 @@ class TopLevelFormatter(logging.Filter):
     ``loggers`` list where it should act.
     """
 
-    def __init__(self, loggers: Optional[list[str]] = None):
+    def __init__(self, loggers: list[str] | None = None):
         self.loggers: list[str] = loggers or []
 
     def filter(self, record: logging.LogRecord) -> bool:
@@ -80,7 +80,7 @@ DEFAULT_LOGGING = {
 
 
 def configure_logging(
-    settings: Union[Settings, dict[_SettingsKeyT, Any], None] = None,
+    settings: Settings | dict[_SettingsKeyT, Any] | None = None,
     install_root_handler: bool = True,
 ) -> None:
     """
@@ -125,7 +125,7 @@ def configure_logging(
         install_scrapy_root_handler(settings)
 
 
-_scrapy_root_handler: Optional[logging.Handler] = None
+_scrapy_root_handler: logging.Handler | None = None
 
 
 def install_scrapy_root_handler(settings: Settings) -> None:
@@ -141,7 +141,7 @@ def install_scrapy_root_handler(settings: Settings) -> None:
     logging.root.addHandler(_scrapy_root_handler)
 
 
-def get_scrapy_root_handler() -> Optional[logging.Handler]:
+def get_scrapy_root_handler() -> logging.Handler | None:
     return _scrapy_root_handler
 
 
@@ -231,7 +231,7 @@ class LogCounterHandler(logging.Handler):
 
 def logformatter_adapter(
     logkws: LogFormatterResult,
-) -> tuple[int, str, Union[dict[str, Any], tuple[Any, ...]]]:
+) -> tuple[int, str, dict[str, Any] | tuple[Any, ...]]:
     """
     Helper that takes the dictionary output from the methods in LogFormatter
     and adapts it into a tuple of positional arguments for logger.log calls,
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/misc.py b/scrapy/utils/misc.py
index e5e00512a..1ab30f097 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/misc.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/misc.py
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ from contextlib import contextmanager
 from functools import partial
 from importlib import import_module
 from pkgutil import iter_modules
-from typing import IO, TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, TypeVar, Union, cast
+from typing import IO, TYPE_CHECKING, Any, TypeVar, cast
 
 from scrapy.exceptions import ScrapyDeprecationWarning
 from scrapy.item import Item
@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ def arg_to_iter(arg: Any) -> Iterable[Any]:
     return [arg]
 
 
-def load_object(path: Union[str, Callable[..., Any]]) -> Any:
+def load_object(path: str | Callable[..., Any]) -> Any:
     """Load an object given its absolute object path, and return it.
 
     The object can be the import path of a class, function, variable or an
@@ -126,7 +126,7 @@ def md5sum(file: IO[bytes]) -> str:
     return m.hexdigest()
 
 
-def rel_has_nofollow(rel: Optional[str]) -> bool:
+def rel_has_nofollow(rel: str | None) -> bool:
     """Return True if link rel attribute has nofollow type"""
     return rel is not None and "nofollow" in rel.replace(",", " ").split()
 
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/ossignal.py b/scrapy/utils/ossignal.py
index cff5eb629..ad758b783 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/ossignal.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/ossignal.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import signal
 from collections.abc import Callable
 from types import FrameType
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/project.py b/scrapy/utils/project.py
index c9e5eb857..0139720b7 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/project.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/project.py
@@ -1,8 +1,9 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import os
 import warnings
 from importlib import import_module
 from pathlib import Path
-from typing import Union
 
 from scrapy.exceptions import NotConfigured
 from scrapy.settings import Settings
@@ -45,7 +46,7 @@ def project_data_dir(project: str = "default") -> str:
     return str(d)
 
 
-def data_path(path: Union[str, os.PathLike[str]], createdir: bool = False) -> str:
+def data_path(path: str | os.PathLike[str], createdir: bool = False) -> str:
     """
     Return the given path joined with the .scrapy data directory.
     If given an absolute path, return it unmodified.
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/python.py b/scrapy/utils/python.py
index 91c5d67f5..6268af728 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/python.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/python.py
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ import weakref
 from collections.abc import AsyncIterable, Iterable, Mapping
 from functools import partial, wraps
 from itertools import chain
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, TypeVar, Union, overload
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, TypeVar, overload
 
 from scrapy.utils.asyncgen import as_async_generator
 
@@ -99,7 +99,7 @@ def unique(list_: Iterable[_T], key: Callable[[_T], Any] = lambda x: x) -> list[
 
 
 def to_unicode(
-    text: Union[str, bytes], encoding: Optional[str] = None, errors: str = "strict"
+    text: str | bytes, encoding: str | None = None, errors: str = "strict"
 ) -> str:
     """Return the unicode representation of a bytes object ``text``. If
     ``text`` is already an unicode object, return it as-is."""
@@ -116,7 +116,7 @@ def to_unicode(
 
 
 def to_bytes(
-    text: Union[str, bytes], encoding: Optional[str] = None, errors: str = "strict"
+    text: str | bytes, encoding: str | None = None, errors: str = "strict"
 ) -> bytes:
     """Return the binary representation of ``text``. If ``text``
     is already a bytes object, return it as-is."""
@@ -132,8 +132,8 @@ def to_bytes(
 
 
 def re_rsearch(
-    pattern: Union[str, Pattern[str]], text: str, chunk_size: int = 1024
-) -> Optional[tuple[int, int]]:
+    pattern: str | Pattern[str], text: str, chunk_size: int = 1024
+) -> tuple[int, int] | None:
     """
     This function does a reverse search in a text using a regular expression
     given in the attribute 'pattern'.
@@ -269,7 +269,7 @@ def get_spec(func: Callable[..., Any]) -> tuple[list[str], dict[str, Any]]:
 
 
 def equal_attributes(
-    obj1: Any, obj2: Any, attributes: Optional[list[Union[str, Callable[[Any], Any]]]]
+    obj1: Any, obj2: Any, attributes: list[str | Callable[[Any], Any]] | None
 ) -> bool:
     """Compare two objects attributes"""
     # not attributes given return False by default
@@ -297,8 +297,8 @@ def without_none_values(iterable: Iterable[_KT]) -> Iterable[_KT]: ...
 
 
 def without_none_values(
-    iterable: Union[Mapping[_KT, _VT], Iterable[_KT]]
-) -> Union[dict[_KT, _VT], Iterable[_KT]]:
+    iterable: Mapping[_KT, _VT] | Iterable[_KT]
+) -> dict[_KT, _VT] | Iterable[_KT]:
     """Return a copy of ``iterable`` with all ``None`` entries removed.
 
     If ``iterable`` is a mapping, return a dictionary where all pairs that have
@@ -354,7 +354,7 @@ class MutableChain(Iterable[_T]):
 
 
 async def _async_chain(
-    *iterables: Union[Iterable[_T], AsyncIterable[_T]]
+    *iterables: Iterable[_T] | AsyncIterable[_T],
 ) -> AsyncIterator[_T]:
     for it in iterables:
         async for o in as_async_generator(it):
@@ -366,10 +366,10 @@ class MutableAsyncChain(AsyncIterable[_T]):
     Similar to MutableChain but for async iterables
     """
 
-    def __init__(self, *args: Union[Iterable[_T], AsyncIterable[_T]]):
+    def __init__(self, *args: Iterable[_T] | AsyncIterable[_T]):
         self.data: AsyncIterator[_T] = _async_chain(*args)
 
-    def extend(self, *iterables: Union[Iterable[_T], AsyncIterable[_T]]) -> None:
+    def extend(self, *iterables: Iterable[_T] | AsyncIterable[_T]) -> None:
         self.data = _async_chain(self.data, _async_chain(*iterables))
 
     def __aiter__(self) -> AsyncIterator[_T]:
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/reactor.py b/scrapy/utils/reactor.py
index ed2fb5959..18bb583b8 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/reactor.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/reactor.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 import asyncio
 import sys
 from contextlib import suppress
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Generic, Optional, TypeVar
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Generic, TypeVar
 from warnings import catch_warnings, filterwarnings, warn
 
 from twisted.internet import asyncioreactor, error
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ class CallLaterOnce(Generic[_T]):
         self._func: Callable[_P, _T] = func
         self._a: tuple[Any, ...] = a
         self._kw: dict[str, Any] = kw
-        self._call: Optional[DelayedCall] = None
+        self._call: DelayedCall | None = None
 
     def schedule(self, delay: float = 0) -> None:
         from twisted.internet import reactor
@@ -107,7 +107,7 @@ def _get_asyncio_event_loop_policy() -> AbstractEventLoopPolicy:
     return policy
 
 
-def install_reactor(reactor_path: str, event_loop_path: Optional[str] = None) -> None:
+def install_reactor(reactor_path: str, event_loop_path: str | None = None) -> None:
     """Installs the :mod:`~twisted.internet.reactor` with the specified
     import path. Also installs the asyncio event loop with the specified import
     path if the asyncio reactor is enabled"""
@@ -129,7 +129,7 @@ def _get_asyncio_event_loop() -> AbstractEventLoop:
     return set_asyncio_event_loop(None)
 
 
-def set_asyncio_event_loop(event_loop_path: Optional[str]) -> AbstractEventLoop:
+def set_asyncio_event_loop(event_loop_path: str | None) -> AbstractEventLoop:
     """Sets and returns the event loop with specified import path."""
     if event_loop_path is not None:
         event_loop_class: type[AbstractEventLoop] = load_object(event_loop_path)
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/request.py b/scrapy/utils/request.py
index 052a3721a..82bdcb0f9 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/request.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/request.py
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 import hashlib
 import json
 import warnings
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, Protocol, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Protocol
 from urllib.parse import urlunparse
 from weakref import WeakKeyDictionary
 
@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ def _serialize_headers(headers: Iterable[bytes], request: Request) -> Iterable[b
 
 
 _fingerprint_cache: WeakKeyDictionary[
-    Request, dict[tuple[Optional[tuple[bytes, ...]], bool], bytes]
+    Request, dict[tuple[tuple[bytes, ...] | None, bool], bytes]
 ]
 _fingerprint_cache = WeakKeyDictionary()
 
@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ _fingerprint_cache = WeakKeyDictionary()
 def fingerprint(
     request: Request,
     *,
-    include_headers: Optional[Iterable[Union[bytes, str]]] = None,
+    include_headers: Iterable[bytes | str] | None = None,
     keep_fragments: bool = False,
 ) -> bytes:
     """
@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ def fingerprint(
     If you want to include them, set the keep_fragments argument to True
     (for instance when handling requests with a headless browser).
     """
-    processed_include_headers: Optional[tuple[bytes, ...]] = None
+    processed_include_headers: tuple[bytes, ...] | None = None
     if include_headers:
         processed_include_headers = tuple(
             to_bytes(h.lower()) for h in sorted(include_headers)
@@ -129,7 +129,7 @@ class RequestFingerprinter:
     def from_crawler(cls, crawler: Crawler) -> Self:
         return cls(crawler)
 
-    def __init__(self, crawler: Optional[Crawler] = None):
+    def __init__(self, crawler: Crawler | None = None):
         if crawler:
             implementation = crawler.settings.get(
                 "REQUEST_FINGERPRINTER_IMPLEMENTATION"
@@ -177,7 +177,7 @@ def request_httprepr(request: Request) -> bytes:
     return s
 
 
-def referer_str(request: Request) -> Optional[str]:
+def referer_str(request: Request) -> str | None:
     """Return Referer HTTP header suitable for logging."""
     referrer = request.headers.get("Referer")
     if referrer is None:
@@ -185,7 +185,7 @@ def referer_str(request: Request) -> Optional[str]:
     return to_unicode(referrer, errors="replace")
 
 
-def request_from_dict(d: dict[str, Any], *, spider: Optional[Spider] = None) -> Request:
+def request_from_dict(d: dict[str, Any], *, spider: Spider | None = None) -> Request:
     """Create a :class:`~scrapy.Request` object from a dict.
 
     If a spider is given, it will try to resolve the callbacks looking at the
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/response.py b/scrapy/utils/response.py
index 0ca9d07a4..ecc83d1c8 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/response.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/response.py
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ import os
 import re
 import tempfile
 import webbrowser
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any
 from weakref import WeakKeyDictionary
 
 from twisted.web import http
@@ -35,15 +35,15 @@ def get_base_url(response: TextResponse) -> str:
     return _baseurl_cache[response]
 
 
-_metaref_cache: WeakKeyDictionary[
-    Response, Union[tuple[None, None], tuple[float, str]]
-] = WeakKeyDictionary()
+_metaref_cache: WeakKeyDictionary[Response, tuple[None, None] | tuple[float, str]] = (
+    WeakKeyDictionary()
+)
 
 
 def get_meta_refresh(
     response: TextResponse,
     ignore_tags: Iterable[str] = ("script", "noscript"),
-) -> Union[tuple[None, None], tuple[float, str]]:
+) -> tuple[None, None] | tuple[float, str]:
     """Parse the http-equiv refresh parameter from the given response"""
     if response not in _metaref_cache:
         text = response.text[0:4096]
@@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ def get_meta_refresh(
     return _metaref_cache[response]
 
 
-def response_status_message(status: Union[bytes, float, int, str]) -> str:
+def response_status_message(status: bytes | float | int | str) -> str:
     """Return status code plus status text descriptive message"""
     status_int = int(status)
     message = http.RESPONSES.get(status_int, "Unknown Status")
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/sitemap.py b/scrapy/utils/sitemap.py
index 1f70fcf69..c572580ae 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/sitemap.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/sitemap.py
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ SitemapSpider, its API is subject to change without notice.
 
 from __future__ import annotations
 
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any
 from urllib.parse import urljoin
 
 import lxml.etree  # nosec
@@ -20,7 +20,7 @@ class Sitemap:
     """Class to parse Sitemap (type=urlset) and Sitemap Index
     (type=sitemapindex) files"""
 
-    def __init__(self, xmltext: Union[str, bytes]):
+    def __init__(self, xmltext: str | bytes):
         xmlp = lxml.etree.XMLParser(
             recover=True, remove_comments=True, resolve_entities=False
         )
@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ class Sitemap:
 
 
 def sitemap_urls_from_robots(
-    robots_text: str, base_url: Optional[str] = None
+    robots_text: str, base_url: str | None = None
 ) -> Iterable[str]:
     """Return an iterator over all sitemap urls contained in the given
     robots.txt file
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/spider.py b/scrapy/utils/spider.py
index 02dbb2e90..e58eb8134 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/spider.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/spider.py
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 
 import inspect
 import logging
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Literal, Optional, TypeVar, Union, overload
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Literal, TypeVar, overload
 
 from scrapy.spiders import Spider
 from scrapy.utils.defer import deferred_from_coro
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ _T = TypeVar("_T")
 
 # https://stackoverflow.com/questions/60222982
 @overload
-def iterate_spider_output(result: AsyncGenerator[_T, None]) -> AsyncGenerator[_T, None]: ...  # type: ignore[overload-overlap]
+def iterate_spider_output(result: AsyncGenerator[_T]) -> AsyncGenerator[_T]: ...  # type: ignore[overload-overlap]
 
 
 @overload
@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ def iterate_spider_output(result: _T) -> Iterable[Any]: ...
 
 def iterate_spider_output(
     result: Any,
-) -> Union[Iterable[Any], AsyncGenerator[_T, None], Deferred[_T]]:
+) -> Iterable[Any] | AsyncGenerator[_T] | Deferred[_T]:
     if inspect.isasyncgen(result):
         return result
     if inspect.iscoroutine(result):
@@ -83,7 +83,7 @@ def spidercls_for_request(
     default_spidercls: Literal[None],
     log_none: bool = ...,
     log_multiple: bool = ...,
-) -> Optional[type[Spider]]: ...
+) -> type[Spider] | None: ...
 
 
 @overload
@@ -93,16 +93,16 @@ def spidercls_for_request(
     *,
     log_none: bool = ...,
     log_multiple: bool = ...,
-) -> Optional[type[Spider]]: ...
+) -> type[Spider] | None: ...
 
 
 def spidercls_for_request(
     spider_loader: SpiderLoader,
     request: Request,
-    default_spidercls: Optional[type[Spider]] = None,
+    default_spidercls: type[Spider] | None = None,
     log_none: bool = False,
     log_multiple: bool = False,
-) -> Optional[type[Spider]]:
+) -> type[Spider] | None:
     """Return a spider class that handles the given Request.
 
     This will look for the spiders that can handle the given request (using
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/ssl.py b/scrapy/utils/ssl.py
index 2c3a259c1..7d46cbd4f 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/ssl.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/ssl.py
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 from __future__ import annotations
 
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any
 
 import OpenSSL._util as pyOpenSSLutil
 import OpenSSL.SSL
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ def x509name_to_string(x509name: X509Name) -> str:
     return ffi_buf_to_string(result_buffer)
 
 
-def get_temp_key_info(ssl_object: Any) -> Optional[str]:
+def get_temp_key_info(ssl_object: Any) -> str | None:
     # adapted from OpenSSL apps/s_cb.c::ssl_print_tmp_key()
     if not hasattr(pyOpenSSLutil.lib, "SSL_get_server_tmp_key"):
         # removed in cryptography 40.0.0
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/template.py b/scrapy/utils/template.py
index 08f3f2dc9..3e4dae5c8 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/template.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/template.py
@@ -5,13 +5,13 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 import re
 import string
 from pathlib import Path
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
     from os import PathLike
 
 
-def render_templatefile(path: Union[str, PathLike], **kwargs: Any) -> None:
+def render_templatefile(path: str | PathLike, **kwargs: Any) -> None:
     path_obj = Path(path)
     raw = path_obj.read_text("utf8")
 
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/test.py b/scrapy/utils/test.py
index 860a2e3dd..d65f2a76d 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/test.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/test.py
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ import os
 from importlib import import_module
 from pathlib import Path
 from posixpath import split
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Optional, TypeVar
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, TypeVar
 from unittest import TestCase, mock
 
 from twisted.trial.unittest import SkipTest
@@ -84,8 +84,8 @@ class TestSpider(Spider):
 
 
 def get_crawler(
-    spidercls: Optional[type[Spider]] = None,
-    settings_dict: Optional[dict[str, Any]] = None,
+    spidercls: type[Spider] | None = None,
+    settings_dict: dict[str, Any] | None = None,
     prevent_warnings: bool = True,
 ) -> Crawler:
     """Return an unconfigured Crawler object. If settings_dict is given, it
@@ -120,7 +120,7 @@ def get_testenv() -> dict[str, str]:
 
 
 def assert_samelines(
-    testcase: TestCase, text1: str, text2: str, msg: Optional[str] = None
+    testcase: TestCase, text1: str, text2: str, msg: str | None = None
 ) -> None:
     """Asserts text1 and text2 have the same lines, ignoring differences in
     line endings between platforms
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/testproc.py b/scrapy/utils/testproc.py
index dfc823725..05e04e2d1 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/testproc.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/testproc.py
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 
 import os
 import sys
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Optional, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, cast
 
 from twisted.internet.defer import Deferred
 from twisted.internet.error import ProcessTerminated
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ if TYPE_CHECKING:
 
 
 class ProcessTest:
-    command: Optional[str] = None
+    command: str | None = None
     prefix = [sys.executable, "-m", "scrapy.cmdline"]
     cwd = os.getcwd()  # trial chdirs to temp dir
 
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ class ProcessTest:
         self,
         args: Iterable[str],
         check_code: bool = True,
-        settings: Optional[str] = None,
+        settings: str | None = None,
     ) -> Deferred[TestProcessProtocol]:
         from twisted.internet import reactor
 
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ class TestProcessProtocol(ProcessProtocol):
         self.deferred: Deferred[TestProcessProtocol] = Deferred()
         self.out: bytes = b""
         self.err: bytes = b""
-        self.exitcode: Optional[int] = None
+        self.exitcode: int | None = None
 
     def outReceived(self, data: bytes) -> None:
         self.out += data
diff --git a/scrapy/utils/url.py b/scrapy/utils/url.py
index 41d268baa..e0a2973f7 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/url.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/url.py
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ to the w3lib.url module. Always import those from there instead.
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 import re
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Optional, Union, cast
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Union, cast
 from urllib.parse import ParseResult, urldefrag, urlparse, urlunparse
 
 # scrapy.utils.url was moved to w3lib.url and import * ensures this
@@ -50,7 +50,7 @@ def url_has_any_extension(url: UrlT, extensions: Iterable[str]) -> bool:
     return any(lowercase_path.endswith(ext) for ext in extensions)
 
 
-def parse_url(url: UrlT, encoding: Optional[str] = None) -> ParseResult:
+def parse_url(url: UrlT, encoding: str | None = None) -> ParseResult:
     """Return urlparsed url from the given argument (which could be an already
     parsed url)
     """
diff --git a/tests/CrawlerProcess/asyncio_deferred_signal.py b/tests/CrawlerProcess/asyncio_deferred_signal.py
index 1afef4d24..028e3a08a 100644
--- a/tests/CrawlerProcess/asyncio_deferred_signal.py
+++ b/tests/CrawlerProcess/asyncio_deferred_signal.py
@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import asyncio
 import sys
-from typing import Optional
 
 from scrapy import Spider
 from scrapy.crawler import CrawlerProcess
@@ -31,7 +32,7 @@ class UrlSpider(Spider):
 
 
 if __name__ == "__main__":
-    ASYNCIO_EVENT_LOOP: Optional[str]
+    ASYNCIO_EVENT_LOOP: str | None
     try:
         ASYNCIO_EVENT_LOOP = sys.argv[1]
     except IndexError:
diff --git a/tests/spiders.py b/tests/spiders.py
index 5d5792858..cc54240ef 100644
--- a/tests/spiders.py
+++ b/tests/spiders.py
@@ -2,9 +2,10 @@
 Some spiders used for testing and benchmarking
 """
 
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import asyncio
 import time
-from typing import Optional
 from urllib.parse import urlencode
 
 from twisted.internet import defer
@@ -82,19 +83,19 @@ class DelaySpider(MetaSpider):
 class LogSpider(MetaSpider):
     name = "log_spider"
 
-    def log_debug(self, message: str, extra: Optional[dict] = None):
+    def log_debug(self, message: str, extra: dict | None = None):
         self.logger.debug(message, extra=extra)
 
-    def log_info(self, message: str, extra: Optional[dict] = None):
+    def log_info(self, message: str, extra: dict | None = None):
         self.logger.info(message, extra=extra)
 
-    def log_warning(self, message: str, extra: Optional[dict] = None):
+    def log_warning(self, message: str, extra: dict | None = None):
         self.logger.warning(message, extra=extra)
 
-    def log_error(self, message: str, extra: Optional[dict] = None):
+    def log_error(self, message: str, extra: dict | None = None):
         self.logger.error(message, extra=extra)
 
-    def log_critical(self, message: str, extra: Optional[dict] = None):
+    def log_critical(self, message: str, extra: dict | None = None):
         self.logger.critical(message, extra=extra)
 
     def parse(self, response):
diff --git a/tests/test_commands.py b/tests/test_commands.py
index 6ec7c21b0..e7df7b6e8 100644
--- a/tests/test_commands.py
+++ b/tests/test_commands.py
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ from shutil import copytree, rmtree
 from stat import S_IWRITE as ANYONE_WRITE_PERMISSION
 from tempfile import TemporaryFile, mkdtemp
 from threading import Timer
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Optional, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 from unittest import skipIf
 
 from pytest import mark
@@ -117,9 +117,7 @@ class ProjectTest(unittest.TestCase):
 
         return p, to_unicode(stdout), to_unicode(stderr)
 
-    def find_in_file(
-        self, filename: Union[str, os.PathLike], regex
-    ) -> Optional[re.Match]:
+    def find_in_file(self, filename: str | os.PathLike, regex) -> re.Match | None:
         """Find first pattern occurrence in file"""
         pattern = re.compile(regex)
         with Path(filename).open("r", encoding="utf-8") as f:
@@ -198,7 +196,7 @@ class StartprojectTest(ProjectTest):
 
 
 def get_permissions_dict(
-    path: Union[str, os.PathLike], renamings=None, ignore=None
+    path: str | os.PathLike, renamings=None, ignore=None
 ) -> dict[str, str]:
     def get_permissions(path: Path) -> str:
         return oct(path.stat().st_mode)
diff --git a/tests/test_downloader_handlers.py b/tests/test_downloader_handlers.py
index f14a10a32..19cea97ec 100644
--- a/tests/test_downloader_handlers.py
+++ b/tests/test_downloader_handlers.py
@@ -1,10 +1,11 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import contextlib
 import os
 import shutil
 import sys
 from pathlib import Path
 from tempfile import mkdtemp, mkstemp
-from typing import Optional
 from unittest import SkipTest, mock
 
 from testfixtures import LogCapture
@@ -692,7 +693,7 @@ class Https11CustomCiphers(unittest.TestCase):
 class Http11MockServerTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
     """HTTP 1.1 test case with MockServer"""
 
-    settings_dict: Optional[dict] = None
+    settings_dict: dict | None = None
 
     def setUp(self):
         self.mockserver = MockServer()
diff --git a/tests/test_feedexport.py b/tests/test_feedexport.py
index ea3ed3b05..f59412ab4 100644
--- a/tests/test_feedexport.py
+++ b/tests/test_feedexport.py
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ from io import BytesIO
 from logging import getLogger
 from pathlib import Path
 from string import ascii_letters, digits
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 from unittest import mock
 from urllib.parse import quote, urljoin
 from urllib.request import pathname2url
@@ -66,7 +66,7 @@ def printf_escape(string):
     return string.replace("%", "%%")
 
 
-def build_url(path: Union[str, PathLike]) -> str:
+def build_url(path: str | PathLike) -> str:
     path_str = str(path)
     if path_str[0] != "/":
         path_str = "/" + path_str
diff --git a/tests/test_linkextractors.py b/tests/test_linkextractors.py
index b1043c111..ed3394b01 100644
--- a/tests/test_linkextractors.py
+++ b/tests/test_linkextractors.py
@@ -1,7 +1,8 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import pickle
 import re
 import unittest
-from typing import Optional
 
 from packaging.version import Version
 from pytest import mark
@@ -16,7 +17,7 @@ from tests import get_testdata
 # a hack to skip base class tests in pytest
 class Base:
     class LinkExtractorTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
-        extractor_cls: Optional[type] = None
+        extractor_cls: type | None = None
 
         def setUp(self):
             body = get_testdata("link_extractor", "linkextractor.html")
diff --git a/tests/test_loader.py b/tests/test_loader.py
index 8db929dcf..aca428bbe 100644
--- a/tests/test_loader.py
+++ b/tests/test_loader.py
@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import dataclasses
 import unittest
-from typing import Optional
 
 import attr
 from itemadapter import ItemAdapter
@@ -88,7 +89,7 @@ class BasicItemLoaderTest(unittest.TestCase):
 
 
 class InitializationTestMixin:
-    item_class: Optional[type] = None
+    item_class: type | None = None
 
     def test_keep_single_value(self):
         """Loaded item should contain values from the initial item"""
diff --git a/tests/test_pipeline_crawl.py b/tests/test_pipeline_crawl.py
index 83e22b070..5cf4a63aa 100644
--- a/tests/test_pipeline_crawl.py
+++ b/tests/test_pipeline_crawl.py
@@ -1,7 +1,8 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import shutil
 from pathlib import Path
 from tempfile import mkdtemp
-from typing import Optional
 
 from testfixtures import LogCapture
 from twisted.internet import defer
@@ -57,7 +58,7 @@ class FileDownloadCrawlTestCase(TestCase):
     store_setting_key = "FILES_STORE"
     media_key = "files"
     media_urls_key = "file_urls"
-    expected_checksums: Optional[set[str]] = {
+    expected_checksums: set[str] | None = {
         "5547178b89448faf0015a13f904c936e",
         "c2281c83670e31d8aaab7cb642b824db",
         "ed3f6538dc15d4d9179dae57319edc5f",
@@ -216,7 +217,7 @@ class FileDownloadCrawlTestCase(TestCase):
         self.assertIn("ZeroDivisionError", str(log))
 
 
-skip_pillow: Optional[str]
+skip_pillow: str | None
 try:
     from PIL import Image  # noqa: imported just to check for the import error
 except ImportError:
diff --git a/tests/test_pipeline_images.py b/tests/test_pipeline_images.py
index 296a6fae0..2c3b191fe 100644
--- a/tests/test_pipeline_images.py
+++ b/tests/test_pipeline_images.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import dataclasses
 import hashlib
 import io
@@ -5,7 +7,6 @@ import random
 import warnings
 from shutil import rmtree
 from tempfile import mkdtemp
-from typing import Optional
 from unittest.mock import patch
 
 import attr
@@ -19,7 +20,7 @@ from scrapy.pipelines.images import ImageException, ImagesPipeline, NoimagesDrop
 from scrapy.settings import Settings
 from scrapy.utils.python import to_bytes
 
-skip_pillow: Optional[str]
+skip_pillow: str | None
 try:
     from PIL import Image
 except ImportError:
diff --git a/tests/test_pipeline_media.py b/tests/test_pipeline_media.py
index 127775f43..0faf6d015 100644
--- a/tests/test_pipeline_media.py
+++ b/tests/test_pipeline_media.py
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-from typing import Optional
+from __future__ import annotations
 
 from testfixtures import LogCapture
 from twisted.internet import reactor
@@ -20,7 +20,7 @@ from scrapy.utils.test import get_crawler
 try:
     from PIL import Image  # noqa: imported just to check for the import error
 except ImportError:
-    skip_pillow: Optional[str] = (
+    skip_pillow: str | None = (
         "Missing Python Imaging Library, install https://pypi.python.org/pypi/Pillow"
     )
 else:
diff --git a/tests/test_scheduler.py b/tests/test_scheduler.py
index 9b7bad4bf..6b7cd5dac 100644
--- a/tests/test_scheduler.py
+++ b/tests/test_scheduler.py
@@ -1,8 +1,9 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import collections
 import shutil
 import tempfile
 import unittest
-from typing import Optional
 
 from twisted.internet import defer
 from twisted.trial.unittest import TestCase
@@ -60,7 +61,7 @@ class MockCrawler(Crawler):
 
 
 class SchedulerHandler:
-    priority_queue_cls: Optional[str] = None
+    priority_queue_cls: str | None = None
     jobdir = None
 
     def create_scheduler(self):
@@ -254,7 +255,7 @@ def _is_scheduling_fair(enqueued_slots, dequeued_slots):
 
 
 class DownloaderAwareSchedulerTestMixin:
-    priority_queue_cls: Optional[str] = "scrapy.pqueues.DownloaderAwarePriorityQueue"
+    priority_queue_cls: str | None = "scrapy.pqueues.DownloaderAwarePriorityQueue"
     reopen = False
 
     def test_logic(self):
diff --git a/tests/test_scheduler_base.py b/tests/test_scheduler_base.py
index 4fd293ec7..b48a65e67 100644
--- a/tests/test_scheduler_base.py
+++ b/tests/test_scheduler_base.py
@@ -1,4 +1,5 @@
-from typing import Optional
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from unittest import TestCase
 from urllib.parse import urljoin
 
@@ -32,7 +33,7 @@ class MinimalScheduler:
             return True
         return False
 
-    def next_request(self) -> Optional[Request]:
+    def next_request(self) -> Request | None:
         if self.has_pending_requests():
             fp, request = self.requests.popitem()
             return request
diff --git a/tests/test_spidermiddleware.py b/tests/test_spidermiddleware.py
index 41228b5f2..1a80eb7be 100644
--- a/tests/test_spidermiddleware.py
+++ b/tests/test_spidermiddleware.py
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 from collections.abc import AsyncIterator, Iterable
-from typing import Optional, Union
 from unittest import mock
 
 from testfixtures import LogCapture
@@ -112,11 +113,11 @@ class BaseAsyncSpiderMiddlewareTestCase(SpiderMiddlewareTestCase):
     Should work for process_spider_output and, when it's supported, process_start_requests.
     """
 
-    ITEM_TYPE: Union[type, tuple]
+    ITEM_TYPE: type | tuple
     RESULT_COUNT = 3  # to simplify checks, let everything return 3 objects
 
     @staticmethod
-    def _construct_mw_setting(*mw_classes, start_index: Optional[int] = None):
+    def _construct_mw_setting(*mw_classes, start_index: int | None = None):
         if start_index is None:
             start_index = 10
         return {i: c for c, i in enumerate(mw_classes, start=start_index)}
@@ -127,7 +128,7 @@ class BaseAsyncSpiderMiddlewareTestCase(SpiderMiddlewareTestCase):
         yield {"foo": 3}
 
     @defer.inlineCallbacks
-    def _get_middleware_result(self, *mw_classes, start_index: Optional[int] = None):
+    def _get_middleware_result(self, *mw_classes, start_index: int | None = None):
         setting = self._construct_mw_setting(*mw_classes, start_index=start_index)
         self.crawler = get_crawler(
             Spider, {"SPIDER_MIDDLEWARES_BASE": {}, "SPIDER_MIDDLEWARES": setting}
@@ -141,7 +142,7 @@ class BaseAsyncSpiderMiddlewareTestCase(SpiderMiddlewareTestCase):
 
     @defer.inlineCallbacks
     def _test_simple_base(
-        self, *mw_classes, downgrade: bool = False, start_index: Optional[int] = None
+        self, *mw_classes, downgrade: bool = False, start_index: int | None = None
     ):
         with LogCapture() as log:
             result = yield self._get_middleware_result(
@@ -155,7 +156,7 @@ class BaseAsyncSpiderMiddlewareTestCase(SpiderMiddlewareTestCase):
 
     @defer.inlineCallbacks
     def _test_asyncgen_base(
-        self, *mw_classes, downgrade: bool = False, start_index: Optional[int] = None
+        self, *mw_classes, downgrade: bool = False, start_index: int | None = None
     ):
         with LogCapture() as log:
             result = yield self._get_middleware_result(
@@ -337,7 +338,7 @@ class ProcessStartRequestsSimple(BaseAsyncSpiderMiddlewareTestCase):
         yield {"name": "test item"}
 
     @defer.inlineCallbacks
-    def _get_middleware_result(self, *mw_classes, start_index: Optional[int] = None):
+    def _get_middleware_result(self, *mw_classes, start_index: int | None = None):
         setting = self._construct_mw_setting(*mw_classes, start_index=start_index)
         self.crawler = get_crawler(
             Spider, {"SPIDER_MIDDLEWARES_BASE": {}, "SPIDER_MIDDLEWARES": setting}
@@ -441,7 +442,7 @@ class BuiltinMiddlewareSimpleTest(BaseAsyncSpiderMiddlewareTestCase):
     MW_UNIVERSAL = ProcessSpiderOutputUniversalMiddleware
 
     @defer.inlineCallbacks
-    def _get_middleware_result(self, *mw_classes, start_index: Optional[int] = None):
+    def _get_middleware_result(self, *mw_classes, start_index: int | None = None):
         setting = self._construct_mw_setting(*mw_classes, start_index=start_index)
         self.crawler = get_crawler(Spider, {"SPIDER_MIDDLEWARES": setting})
         self.spider = self.crawler._create_spider("foo")
diff --git a/tests/test_spidermiddleware_referer.py b/tests/test_spidermiddleware_referer.py
index e73e7ff4c..facbaa60d 100644
--- a/tests/test_spidermiddleware_referer.py
+++ b/tests/test_spidermiddleware_referer.py
@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import warnings
-from typing import Any, Optional
+from typing import Any
 from unittest import TestCase
 from urllib.parse import urlparse
 
@@ -35,7 +37,7 @@ class TestRefererMiddleware(TestCase):
     req_meta: dict[str, Any] = {}
     resp_headers: dict[str, str] = {}
     settings: dict[str, Any] = {}
-    scenarii: list[tuple[str, str, Optional[bytes]]] = [
+    scenarii: list[tuple[str, str, bytes | None]] = [
         ("http://scrapytest.org", "http://scrapytest.org/", b"http://scrapytest.org"),
     ]
 
@@ -65,7 +67,7 @@ class MixinDefault:
     with some additional filtering of s3://
     """
 
-    scenarii: list[tuple[str, str, Optional[bytes]]] = [
+    scenarii: list[tuple[str, str, bytes | None]] = [
         ("https://example.com/", "https://scrapy.org/", b"https://example.com/"),
         ("http://example.com/", "http://scrapy.org/", b"http://example.com/"),
         ("http://example.com/", "https://scrapy.org/", b"http://example.com/"),
@@ -86,7 +88,7 @@ class MixinDefault:
 
 
 class MixinNoReferrer:
-    scenarii: list[tuple[str, str, Optional[bytes]]] = [
+    scenarii: list[tuple[str, str, bytes | None]] = [
         ("https://example.com/page.html", "https://example.com/", None),
         ("http://www.example.com/", "https://scrapy.org/", None),
         ("http://www.example.com/", "http://scrapy.org/", None),
@@ -96,7 +98,7 @@ class MixinNoReferrer:
 
 
 class MixinNoReferrerWhenDowngrade:
-    scenarii: list[tuple[str, str, Optional[bytes]]] = [
+    scenarii: list[tuple[str, str, bytes | None]] = [
         # TLS to TLS: send non-empty referrer
         (
             "https://example.com/page.html",
@@ -178,7 +180,7 @@ class MixinNoReferrerWhenDowngrade:
 
 
 class MixinSameOrigin:
-    scenarii: list[tuple[str, str, Optional[bytes]]] = [
+    scenarii: list[tuple[str, str, bytes | None]] = [
         # Same origin (protocol, host, port): send referrer
         (
             "https://example.com/page.html",
@@ -247,7 +249,7 @@ class MixinSameOrigin:
 
 
 class MixinOrigin:
-    scenarii: list[tuple[str, str, Optional[bytes]]] = [
+    scenarii: list[tuple[str, str, bytes | None]] = [
         # TLS or non-TLS to TLS or non-TLS: referrer origin is sent (yes, even for downgrades)
         (
             "https://example.com/page.html",
@@ -271,7 +273,7 @@ class MixinOrigin:
 
 
 class MixinStrictOrigin:
-    scenarii: list[tuple[str, str, Optional[bytes]]] = [
+    scenarii: list[tuple[str, str, bytes | None]] = [
         # TLS or non-TLS to TLS or non-TLS: referrer origin is sent but not for downgrades
         (
             "https://example.com/page.html",
@@ -299,7 +301,7 @@ class MixinStrictOrigin:
 
 
 class MixinOriginWhenCrossOrigin:
-    scenarii: list[tuple[str, str, Optional[bytes]]] = [
+    scenarii: list[tuple[str, str, bytes | None]] = [
         # Same origin (protocol, host, port): send referrer
         (
             "https://example.com/page.html",
@@ -406,7 +408,7 @@ class MixinOriginWhenCrossOrigin:
 
 
 class MixinStrictOriginWhenCrossOrigin:
-    scenarii: list[tuple[str, str, Optional[bytes]]] = [
+    scenarii: list[tuple[str, str, bytes | None]] = [
         # Same origin (protocol, host, port): send referrer
         (
             "https://example.com/page.html",
@@ -518,7 +520,7 @@ class MixinStrictOriginWhenCrossOrigin:
 
 
 class MixinUnsafeUrl:
-    scenarii: list[tuple[str, str, Optional[bytes]]] = [
+    scenarii: list[tuple[str, str, bytes | None]] = [
         # TLS to TLS: send referrer
         (
             "https://example.com/sekrit.html",
@@ -969,7 +971,7 @@ class TestPolicyHeaderPrecedence004(
 class TestReferrerOnRedirect(TestRefererMiddleware):
     settings = {"REFERRER_POLICY": "scrapy.spidermiddlewares.referer.UnsafeUrlPolicy"}
     scenarii: list[
-        tuple[str, str, tuple[tuple[int, str], ...], Optional[bytes], Optional[bytes]]
+        tuple[str, str, tuple[tuple[int, str], ...], bytes | None, bytes | None]
     ] = [  # type: ignore[assignment]
         (
             "http://scrapytest.org/1",  # parent
diff --git a/tests/test_utils_request.py b/tests/test_utils_request.py
index ca3bca0b2..7156b13d0 100644
--- a/tests/test_utils_request.py
+++ b/tests/test_utils_request.py
@@ -1,8 +1,9 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+
 import json
 import unittest
 import warnings
 from hashlib import sha1
-from typing import Optional, Union
 from weakref import WeakKeyDictionary
 
 from scrapy.http import Request
@@ -56,12 +57,12 @@ class FingerprintTest(unittest.TestCase):
     maxDiff = None
 
     function: staticmethod = staticmethod(fingerprint)
-    cache: Union[
-        "WeakKeyDictionary[Request, dict[tuple[Optional[tuple[bytes, ...]], bool], bytes]]",
-        "WeakKeyDictionary[Request, dict[tuple[Optional[tuple[bytes, ...]], bool], str]]",
-    ] = _fingerprint_cache
+    cache: (
+        WeakKeyDictionary[Request, dict[tuple[tuple[bytes, ...] | None, bool], bytes]]
+        | WeakKeyDictionary[Request, dict[tuple[tuple[bytes, ...] | None, bool], str]]
+    ) = _fingerprint_cache
     default_cache_key = (None, False)
-    known_hashes: tuple[tuple[Request, Union[bytes, str], dict], ...] = (
+    known_hashes: tuple[tuple[Request, bytes | str, dict], ...] = (
         (
             Request("http://example.org"),
             b"xs\xd7\x0c3uj\x15\xfe\xd7d\x9b\xa9\t\xe0d\xbf\x9cXD",

From 7196a11f5321d05b79c9dedc29398a200d00c911 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Andrey Rakhmatullin <wrar@wrar.name>
Date: Thu, 17 Oct 2024 21:51:13 +0500
Subject: [PATCH 4/8] Reorder unions with None.

---
 scrapy/core/spidermw.py     | 2 +-
 scrapy/crawler.py           | 2 +-
 scrapy/http/request/form.py | 6 +++---
 scrapy/middleware.py        | 2 +-
 4 files changed, 6 insertions(+), 6 deletions(-)

diff --git a/scrapy/core/spidermw.py b/scrapy/core/spidermw.py
index 1edfe1c51..f7947d35d 100644
--- a/scrapy/core/spidermw.py
+++ b/scrapy/core/spidermw.py
@@ -339,7 +339,7 @@ class SpiderMiddlewareManager(MiddlewareManager):
     @staticmethod
     def _get_async_method_pair(
         mw: Any, methodname: str
-    ) -> None | Callable | tuple[Callable, Callable]:
+    ) -> Callable | tuple[Callable, Callable] | None:
         normal_method: Callable | None = getattr(mw, methodname, None)
         methodname_async = methodname + "_async"
         async_method: Callable | None = getattr(mw, methodname_async, None)
diff --git a/scrapy/crawler.py b/scrapy/crawler.py
index 701dccf57..3e5657d22 100644
--- a/scrapy/crawler.py
+++ b/scrapy/crawler.py
@@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ class Crawler:
     def __init__(
         self,
         spidercls: type[Spider],
-        settings: None | dict[str, Any] | Settings = None,
+        settings: dict[str, Any] | Settings | None = None,
         init_reactor: bool = False,
     ):
         if isinstance(spidercls, Spider):
diff --git a/scrapy/http/request/form.py b/scrapy/http/request/form.py
index 2fabf08d1..29743565d 100644
--- a/scrapy/http/request/form.py
+++ b/scrapy/http/request/form.py
@@ -197,7 +197,7 @@ def _get_inputs(
 
 def _value(
     ele: InputElement | SelectElement | TextareaElement,
-) -> tuple[str | None, None | str | MultipleSelectOptions]:
+) -> tuple[str | None, str | MultipleSelectOptions | None]:
     n = ele.name
     v = ele.value
     if ele.tag == "select":
@@ -206,8 +206,8 @@ def _value(
 
 
 def _select_value(
-    ele: SelectElement, n: str | None, v: None | str | MultipleSelectOptions
-) -> tuple[str | None, None | str | MultipleSelectOptions]:
+    ele: SelectElement, n: str | None, v: str | MultipleSelectOptions | None
+) -> tuple[str | None, str | MultipleSelectOptions | None]:
     multiple = ele.multiple
     if v is None and not multiple:
         # Match browser behaviour on simple select tag without options selected
diff --git a/scrapy/middleware.py b/scrapy/middleware.py
index 39f26717a..b6a427895 100644
--- a/scrapy/middleware.py
+++ b/scrapy/middleware.py
@@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ class MiddlewareManager:
         self.middlewares = middlewares
         # Only process_spider_output and process_spider_exception can be None.
         # Only process_spider_output can be a tuple, and only until _async compatibility methods are removed.
-        self.methods: dict[str, deque[None | Callable | tuple[Callable, Callable]]] = (
+        self.methods: dict[str, deque[Callable | tuple[Callable, Callable] | None]] = (
             defaultdict(deque)
         )
         for mw in middlewares:

From 7e07d48cc5bfb4e07e1319334884ab420a2616c0 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Andrey Rakhmatullin <wrar@wrar.name>
Date: Thu, 17 Oct 2024 23:22:37 +0500
Subject: [PATCH 5/8] Small 3.7 and 3.8 cleanup.

---
 scrapy/utils/reactor.py                                     | 6 ++----
 tests/CrawlerProcess/asyncio_enabled_reactor.py             | 2 +-
 .../asyncio_enabled_reactor_different_loop.py               | 2 +-
 tests/CrawlerProcess/asyncio_enabled_reactor_same_loop.py   | 2 +-
 tox.ini                                                     | 3 ---
 5 files changed, 5 insertions(+), 10 deletions(-)

diff --git a/scrapy/utils/reactor.py b/scrapy/utils/reactor.py
index 18bb583b8..f8904a9aa 100644
--- a/scrapy/utils/reactor.py
+++ b/scrapy/utils/reactor.py
@@ -97,10 +97,8 @@ def get_asyncio_event_loop_policy() -> AbstractEventLoopPolicy:
 
 def _get_asyncio_event_loop_policy() -> AbstractEventLoopPolicy:
     policy = asyncio.get_event_loop_policy()
-    if (
-        sys.version_info >= (3, 8)
-        and sys.platform == "win32"
-        and not isinstance(policy, asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy)
+    if sys.platform == "win32" and not isinstance(
+        policy, asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy
     ):
         policy = asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy()
         asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(policy)
diff --git a/tests/CrawlerProcess/asyncio_enabled_reactor.py b/tests/CrawlerProcess/asyncio_enabled_reactor.py
index 01d23c963..f013eed27 100644
--- a/tests/CrawlerProcess/asyncio_enabled_reactor.py
+++ b/tests/CrawlerProcess/asyncio_enabled_reactor.py
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ import sys
 
 from twisted.internet import asyncioreactor
 
-if sys.version_info >= (3, 8) and sys.platform == "win32":
+if sys.platform == "win32":
     asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy())
 asyncioreactor.install(asyncio.get_event_loop())
 
diff --git a/tests/CrawlerProcess/asyncio_enabled_reactor_different_loop.py b/tests/CrawlerProcess/asyncio_enabled_reactor_different_loop.py
index 9dc8ce46b..e9d6d8875 100644
--- a/tests/CrawlerProcess/asyncio_enabled_reactor_different_loop.py
+++ b/tests/CrawlerProcess/asyncio_enabled_reactor_different_loop.py
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ import sys
 from twisted.internet import asyncioreactor
 from twisted.python import log
 
-if sys.version_info >= (3, 8) and sys.platform == "win32":
+if sys.platform == "win32":
     asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy())
 asyncioreactor.install(asyncio.get_event_loop())
 
diff --git a/tests/CrawlerProcess/asyncio_enabled_reactor_same_loop.py b/tests/CrawlerProcess/asyncio_enabled_reactor_same_loop.py
index be9c83b95..c72a0a17c 100644
--- a/tests/CrawlerProcess/asyncio_enabled_reactor_same_loop.py
+++ b/tests/CrawlerProcess/asyncio_enabled_reactor_same_loop.py
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ import sys
 from twisted.internet import asyncioreactor
 from uvloop import Loop
 
-if sys.version_info >= (3, 8) and sys.platform == "win32":
+if sys.platform == "win32":
     asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy())
 asyncio.set_event_loop(Loop())
 asyncioreactor.install(asyncio.get_event_loop())
diff --git a/tox.ini b/tox.ini
index 79f72a0f2..fbbce48d4 100644
--- a/tox.ini
+++ b/tox.ini
@@ -26,9 +26,6 @@ deps =
 
     # mitmproxy does not support PyPy
     mitmproxy; implementation_name != 'pypy'
-    # https://github.com/pallets/werkzeug/pull/2768 breaks flask, required by
-    # mitmproxy.
-    werkzeug < 3; python_version < '3.9' and implementation_name != 'pypy'
 passenv =
     S3_TEST_FILE_URI
     AWS_ACCESS_KEY_ID

From 5759b3f0f2b0a45588e7ae7cd455ee5e7d4f531c Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Andrey Rakhmatullin <wrar@wrar.name>
Date: Thu, 17 Oct 2024 23:41:23 +0500
Subject: [PATCH 6/8] Drop Reppy.

---
 docs/topics/downloader-middleware.rst        | 32 --------------------
 scrapy/robotstxt.py                          | 20 ------------
 tests/test_downloadermiddleware_robotstxt.py | 13 +-------
 tests/test_robotstxt_interface.py            | 24 ---------------
 4 files changed, 1 insertion(+), 88 deletions(-)

diff --git a/docs/topics/downloader-middleware.rst b/docs/topics/downloader-middleware.rst
index c31f7fe43..13064ccdd 100644
--- a/docs/topics/downloader-middleware.rst
+++ b/docs/topics/downloader-middleware.rst
@@ -1086,7 +1086,6 @@ RobotsTxtMiddleware
     * :ref:`Protego <protego-parser>` (default)
     * :ref:`RobotFileParser <python-robotfileparser>`
     * :ref:`Robotexclusionrulesparser <rerp-parser>`
-    * :ref:`Reppy <reppy-parser>` (deprecated)
 
     You can change the robots.txt_ parser with the :setting:`ROBOTSTXT_PARSER`
     setting. Or you can also :ref:`implement support for a new parser <support-for-new-robots-parser>`.
@@ -1154,37 +1153,6 @@ In order to use this parser, set:
 
 * :setting:`ROBOTSTXT_PARSER` to ``scrapy.robotstxt.PythonRobotParser``
 
-.. _reppy-parser:
-
-Reppy parser
-~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
-Based on `Reppy <https://github.com/seomoz/reppy/>`_:
-
-* is a Python wrapper around `Robots Exclusion Protocol Parser for C++
-  <https://github.com/seomoz/rep-cpp>`_
-
-* is compliant with `Martijn Koster's 1996 draft specification
-  <https://www.robotstxt.org/norobots-rfc.txt>`_
-
-* supports wildcard matching
-
-* uses the length based rule
-
-Native implementation, provides better speed than Protego.
-
-In order to use this parser:
-
-* Install `Reppy <https://github.com/seomoz/reppy/>`_ by running ``pip install reppy``
-
-    .. warning:: `Upstream issue #122
-        <https://github.com/seomoz/reppy/issues/122>`_ prevents reppy usage in Python 3.9+.
-        Because of this the Reppy parser is deprecated.
-
-* Set :setting:`ROBOTSTXT_PARSER` setting to
-  ``scrapy.robotstxt.ReppyRobotParser``
-
-
 .. _rerp-parser:
 
 Robotexclusionrulesparser
diff --git a/scrapy/robotstxt.py b/scrapy/robotstxt.py
index a0e5fc671..f0a6e7467 100644
--- a/scrapy/robotstxt.py
+++ b/scrapy/robotstxt.py
@@ -4,9 +4,7 @@ import logging
 import sys
 from abc import ABCMeta, abstractmethod
 from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
-from warnings import warn
 
-from scrapy.exceptions import ScrapyDeprecationWarning
 from scrapy.utils.python import to_unicode
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
@@ -90,24 +88,6 @@ class PythonRobotParser(RobotParser):
         return self.rp.can_fetch(user_agent, url)
 
 
-class ReppyRobotParser(RobotParser):
-    def __init__(self, robotstxt_body: bytes, spider: Spider | None):
-        warn("ReppyRobotParser is deprecated.", ScrapyDeprecationWarning, stacklevel=2)
-        from reppy.robots import Robots
-
-        self.spider: Spider | None = spider
-        self.rp = Robots.parse("", robotstxt_body)
-
-    @classmethod
-    def from_crawler(cls, crawler: Crawler, robotstxt_body: bytes) -> Self:
-        spider = None if not crawler else crawler.spider
-        o = cls(robotstxt_body, spider)
-        return o
-
-    def allowed(self, url: str | bytes, user_agent: str | bytes) -> bool:
-        return self.rp.allowed(url, user_agent)
-
-
 class RerpRobotParser(RobotParser):
     def __init__(self, robotstxt_body: bytes, spider: Spider | None):
         from robotexclusionrulesparser import RobotExclusionRulesParser
diff --git a/tests/test_downloadermiddleware_robotstxt.py b/tests/test_downloadermiddleware_robotstxt.py
index e166cc000..12b541456 100644
--- a/tests/test_downloadermiddleware_robotstxt.py
+++ b/tests/test_downloadermiddleware_robotstxt.py
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ from scrapy.exceptions import IgnoreRequest, NotConfigured
 from scrapy.http import Request, Response, TextResponse
 from scrapy.http.request import NO_CALLBACK
 from scrapy.settings import Settings
-from tests.test_robotstxt_interface import reppy_available, rerp_available
+from tests.test_robotstxt_interface import rerp_available
 
 
 class RobotsTxtMiddlewareTest(unittest.TestCase):
@@ -254,14 +254,3 @@ class RobotsTxtMiddlewareWithRerpTest(RobotsTxtMiddlewareTest):
         self.crawler.settings.set(
             "ROBOTSTXT_PARSER", "scrapy.robotstxt.RerpRobotParser"
         )
-
-
-class RobotsTxtMiddlewareWithReppyTest(RobotsTxtMiddlewareTest):
-    if not reppy_available():
-        skip = "Reppy parser is not installed"
-
-    def setUp(self):
-        super().setUp()
-        self.crawler.settings.set(
-            "ROBOTSTXT_PARSER", "scrapy.robotstxt.ReppyRobotParser"
-        )
diff --git a/tests/test_robotstxt_interface.py b/tests/test_robotstxt_interface.py
index 28ad910a8..541979dcc 100644
--- a/tests/test_robotstxt_interface.py
+++ b/tests/test_robotstxt_interface.py
@@ -3,15 +3,6 @@ from twisted.trial import unittest
 from scrapy.robotstxt import decode_robotstxt
 
 
-def reppy_available():
-    # check if reppy parser is installed
-    try:
-        from reppy.robots import Robots  # noqa: F401
-    except ImportError:
-        return False
-    return True
-
-
 def rerp_available():
     # check if robotexclusionrulesparser is installed
     try:
@@ -169,21 +160,6 @@ class PythonRobotParserTest(BaseRobotParserTest, unittest.TestCase):
         raise unittest.SkipTest("RobotFileParser does not support wildcards.")
 
 
-class ReppyRobotParserTest(BaseRobotParserTest, unittest.TestCase):
-    if not reppy_available():
-        skip = "Reppy parser is not installed"
-
-    def setUp(self):
-        from scrapy.robotstxt import ReppyRobotParser
-
-        super()._setUp(ReppyRobotParser)
-
-    def test_order_based_precedence(self):
-        raise unittest.SkipTest(
-            "Reppy does not support order based directives precedence."
-        )
-
-
 class RerpRobotParserTest(BaseRobotParserTest, unittest.TestCase):
     if not rerp_available():
         skip = "Rerp parser is not installed"

From 677e9772070ec8a92033f66dff45d7c421763203 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Andrey Rakhmatullin <wrar@wrar.name>
Date: Fri, 18 Oct 2024 00:03:32 +0500
Subject: [PATCH 7/8] Remove dead links to the Reppy doc from the release
 notes.

---
 docs/news.rst | 4 ++--
 1 file changed, 2 insertions(+), 2 deletions(-)

diff --git a/docs/news.rst b/docs/news.rst
index 58b51c9ea..2bbca77cc 100644
--- a/docs/news.rst
+++ b/docs/news.rst
@@ -1530,7 +1530,7 @@ Documentation
 -   Provided better context and instructions to disable the
     :setting:`URLLENGTH_LIMIT` setting. (:issue:`5135`, :issue:`5250`)
 
--   Documented that :ref:`reppy-parser` does not support Python 3.9+.
+-   Documented that Reppy parser does not support Python 3.9+.
     (:issue:`5226`, :issue:`5231`)
 
 -   Documented :ref:`the scheduler component <topics-scheduler>`.
@@ -3344,7 +3344,7 @@ New features
 *   A new :setting:`ROBOTSTXT_PARSER` setting allows choosing which robots.txt_
     parser to use. It includes built-in support for
     :ref:`RobotFileParser <python-robotfileparser>`,
-    :ref:`Protego <protego-parser>` (default), :ref:`Reppy <reppy-parser>`, and
+    :ref:`Protego <protego-parser>` (default), Reppy, and
     :ref:`Robotexclusionrulesparser <rerp-parser>`, and allows you to
     :ref:`implement support for additional parsers
     <support-for-new-robots-parser>` (:issue:`754`, :issue:`2669`,

From 04d0411bf7538ebe8e81771ecf9c6792c71c863b Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Andrey Rakhmatullin <wrar@wrar.name>
Date: Mon, 21 Oct 2024 15:30:49 +0500
Subject: [PATCH 8/8] Filter test-time warnings. (#6501)

---
 tests/test_crawl.py                        |  2 +-
 tests/test_crawler.py                      | 12 +++---------
 tests/test_downloadermiddleware_offsite.py | 10 ++++++++--
 tests/test_dupefilters.py                  |  6 ------
 tests/test_pipeline_crawl.py               |  1 -
 tests/test_scheduler.py                    |  1 -
 tests/test_spiderloader/__init__.py        |  1 -
 tests/test_utils_asyncio.py                |  2 +-
 tests/test_utils_datatypes.py              |  6 ++++++
 tests/test_utils_misc/__init__.py          |  3 +++
 10 files changed, 22 insertions(+), 22 deletions(-)

diff --git a/tests/test_crawl.py b/tests/test_crawl.py
index 125709571..1f81a6073 100644
--- a/tests/test_crawl.py
+++ b/tests/test_crawl.py
@@ -428,7 +428,7 @@ with multiples lines
 
     @defer.inlineCallbacks
     def test_crawl_multiple(self):
-        runner = CrawlerRunner({"REQUEST_FINGERPRINTER_IMPLEMENTATION": "2.7"})
+        runner = CrawlerRunner()
         runner.crawl(
             SimpleSpider,
             self.mockserver.url("/status?n=200"),
diff --git a/tests/test_crawler.py b/tests/test_crawler.py
index 69bfb7eb3..92a201fd1 100644
--- a/tests/test_crawler.py
+++ b/tests/test_crawler.py
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ import subprocess
 import sys
 import warnings
 from pathlib import Path
+from typing import Any
 
 import pytest
 from packaging.version import parse as parse_version
@@ -28,10 +29,7 @@ from scrapy.utils.spider import DefaultSpider
 from scrapy.utils.test import get_crawler
 from tests.mockserver import MockServer, get_mockserver_env
 
-# To prevent warnings.
-BASE_SETTINGS = {
-    "REQUEST_FINGERPRINTER_IMPLEMENTATION": "2.7",
-}
+BASE_SETTINGS: dict[str, Any] = {}
 
 
 def get_raw_crawler(spidercls=None, settings_dict=None):
@@ -478,8 +476,6 @@ class CrawlerLoggingTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
             custom_settings = {
                 "LOG_LEVEL": "INFO",
                 "LOG_FILE": str(log_file),
-                # settings to avoid extra warnings
-                "REQUEST_FINGERPRINTER_IMPLEMENTATION": "2.7",
             }
 
         configure_logging()
@@ -582,7 +578,7 @@ class NoRequestsSpider(scrapy.Spider):
 @mark.usefixtures("reactor_pytest")
 class CrawlerRunnerHasSpider(unittest.TestCase):
     def _runner(self):
-        return CrawlerRunner({"REQUEST_FINGERPRINTER_IMPLEMENTATION": "2.7"})
+        return CrawlerRunner()
 
     @inlineCallbacks
     def test_crawler_runner_bootstrap_successful(self):
@@ -631,7 +627,6 @@ class CrawlerRunnerHasSpider(unittest.TestCase):
             CrawlerRunner(
                 settings={
                     "TWISTED_REACTOR": "twisted.internet.asyncioreactor.AsyncioSelectorReactor",
-                    "REQUEST_FINGERPRINTER_IMPLEMENTATION": "2.7",
                 }
             )
         else:
@@ -640,7 +635,6 @@ class CrawlerRunnerHasSpider(unittest.TestCase):
                 runner = CrawlerRunner(
                     settings={
                         "TWISTED_REACTOR": "twisted.internet.asyncioreactor.AsyncioSelectorReactor",
-                        "REQUEST_FINGERPRINTER_IMPLEMENTATION": "2.7",
                     }
                 )
                 yield runner.crawl(NoRequestsSpider)
diff --git a/tests/test_downloadermiddleware_offsite.py b/tests/test_downloadermiddleware_offsite.py
index d4669f450..fec56a39f 100644
--- a/tests/test_downloadermiddleware_offsite.py
+++ b/tests/test_downloadermiddleware_offsite.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+import warnings
+
 import pytest
 
 from scrapy import Request, Spider
@@ -87,7 +89,9 @@ def test_process_request_invalid_domains():
     allowed_domains = ["a.example", None, "http:////b.example", "//c.example"]
     spider = crawler._create_spider(name="a", allowed_domains=allowed_domains)
     mw = OffsiteMiddleware.from_crawler(crawler)
-    mw.spider_opened(spider)
+    with warnings.catch_warnings():
+        warnings.simplefilter("ignore", UserWarning)
+        mw.spider_opened(spider)
     request = Request("https://a.example")
     assert mw.process_request(request, spider) is None
     for letter in ("b", "c"):
@@ -175,7 +179,9 @@ def test_request_scheduled_invalid_domains():
     allowed_domains = ["a.example", None, "http:////b.example", "//c.example"]
     spider = crawler._create_spider(name="a", allowed_domains=allowed_domains)
     mw = OffsiteMiddleware.from_crawler(crawler)
-    mw.spider_opened(spider)
+    with warnings.catch_warnings():
+        warnings.simplefilter("ignore", UserWarning)
+        mw.spider_opened(spider)
     request = Request("https://a.example")
     assert mw.request_scheduled(request, spider) is None
     for letter in ("b", "c"):
diff --git a/tests/test_dupefilters.py b/tests/test_dupefilters.py
index f617fc027..9ba8bd64f 100644
--- a/tests/test_dupefilters.py
+++ b/tests/test_dupefilters.py
@@ -50,7 +50,6 @@ class RFPDupeFilterTest(unittest.TestCase):
         settings = {
             "DUPEFILTER_DEBUG": True,
             "DUPEFILTER_CLASS": FromCrawlerRFPDupeFilter,
-            "REQUEST_FINGERPRINTER_IMPLEMENTATION": "2.7",
         }
         crawler = get_crawler(settings_dict=settings)
         scheduler = Scheduler.from_crawler(crawler)
@@ -61,7 +60,6 @@ class RFPDupeFilterTest(unittest.TestCase):
         settings = {
             "DUPEFILTER_DEBUG": True,
             "DUPEFILTER_CLASS": FromSettingsRFPDupeFilter,
-            "REQUEST_FINGERPRINTER_IMPLEMENTATION": "2.7",
         }
         crawler = get_crawler(settings_dict=settings)
         scheduler = Scheduler.from_crawler(crawler)
@@ -71,7 +69,6 @@ class RFPDupeFilterTest(unittest.TestCase):
     def test_df_direct_scheduler(self):
         settings = {
             "DUPEFILTER_CLASS": DirectDupeFilter,
-            "REQUEST_FINGERPRINTER_IMPLEMENTATION": "2.7",
         }
         crawler = get_crawler(settings_dict=settings)
         scheduler = Scheduler.from_crawler(crawler)
@@ -176,7 +173,6 @@ class RFPDupeFilterTest(unittest.TestCase):
             settings = {
                 "DUPEFILTER_DEBUG": False,
                 "DUPEFILTER_CLASS": FromCrawlerRFPDupeFilter,
-                "REQUEST_FINGERPRINTER_IMPLEMENTATION": "2.7",
             }
             crawler = get_crawler(SimpleSpider, settings_dict=settings)
             spider = SimpleSpider.from_crawler(crawler)
@@ -205,7 +201,6 @@ class RFPDupeFilterTest(unittest.TestCase):
             settings = {
                 "DUPEFILTER_DEBUG": True,
                 "DUPEFILTER_CLASS": FromCrawlerRFPDupeFilter,
-                "REQUEST_FINGERPRINTER_IMPLEMENTATION": "2.7",
             }
             crawler = get_crawler(SimpleSpider, settings_dict=settings)
             spider = SimpleSpider.from_crawler(crawler)
@@ -243,7 +238,6 @@ class RFPDupeFilterTest(unittest.TestCase):
         with LogCapture() as log:
             settings = {
                 "DUPEFILTER_DEBUG": True,
-                "REQUEST_FINGERPRINTER_IMPLEMENTATION": "2.7",
             }
             crawler = get_crawler(SimpleSpider, settings_dict=settings)
             spider = SimpleSpider.from_crawler(crawler)
diff --git a/tests/test_pipeline_crawl.py b/tests/test_pipeline_crawl.py
index 5cf4a63aa..696ef8cab 100644
--- a/tests/test_pipeline_crawl.py
+++ b/tests/test_pipeline_crawl.py
@@ -71,7 +71,6 @@ class FileDownloadCrawlTestCase(TestCase):
         # prepare a directory for storing files
         self.tmpmediastore = Path(mkdtemp())
         self.settings = {
-            "REQUEST_FINGERPRINTER_IMPLEMENTATION": "2.7",
             "ITEM_PIPELINES": {self.pipeline_class: 1},
             self.store_setting_key: str(self.tmpmediastore),
         }
diff --git a/tests/test_scheduler.py b/tests/test_scheduler.py
index 6b7cd5dac..387bc7c20 100644
--- a/tests/test_scheduler.py
+++ b/tests/test_scheduler.py
@@ -53,7 +53,6 @@ class MockCrawler(Crawler):
             "SCHEDULER_PRIORITY_QUEUE": priority_queue_cls,
             "JOBDIR": jobdir,
             "DUPEFILTER_CLASS": "scrapy.dupefilters.BaseDupeFilter",
-            "REQUEST_FINGERPRINTER_IMPLEMENTATION": "2.7",
         }
         super().__init__(Spider, settings)
         self.engine = MockEngine(downloader=MockDownloader())
diff --git a/tests/test_spiderloader/__init__.py b/tests/test_spiderloader/__init__.py
index 32699d837..d2ff9ba48 100644
--- a/tests/test_spiderloader/__init__.py
+++ b/tests/test_spiderloader/__init__.py
@@ -103,7 +103,6 @@ class SpiderLoaderTest(unittest.TestCase):
         runner = CrawlerRunner(
             {
                 "SPIDER_MODULES": [module],
-                "REQUEST_FINGERPRINTER_IMPLEMENTATION": "2.7",
             }
         )
 
diff --git a/tests/test_utils_asyncio.py b/tests/test_utils_asyncio.py
index 65e352053..1c93829e9 100644
--- a/tests/test_utils_asyncio.py
+++ b/tests/test_utils_asyncio.py
@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 import asyncio
 import warnings
-from unittest import TestCase
 
 from pytest import mark
+from twisted.trial.unittest import TestCase
 
 from scrapy.utils.defer import deferred_f_from_coro_f
 from scrapy.utils.reactor import (
diff --git a/tests/test_utils_datatypes.py b/tests/test_utils_datatypes.py
index fb7c90f80..10dc6f270 100644
--- a/tests/test_utils_datatypes.py
+++ b/tests/test_utils_datatypes.py
@@ -3,6 +3,8 @@ import unittest
 import warnings
 from collections.abc import Iterator, Mapping, MutableMapping
 
+import pytest
+
 from scrapy.exceptions import ScrapyDeprecationWarning
 from scrapy.http import Request
 from scrapy.utils.datatypes import (
@@ -90,12 +92,14 @@ class CaseInsensitiveDictMixin:
         self.assertRaises(KeyError, d.__getitem__, "key_LOWER")
         self.assertRaises(KeyError, d.__getitem__, "key_lower")
 
+    @pytest.mark.filterwarnings("ignore::scrapy.exceptions.ScrapyDeprecationWarning")
     def test_getdefault(self):
         d = CaselessDict()
         self.assertEqual(d.get("c", 5), 5)
         d["c"] = 10
         self.assertEqual(d.get("c", 5), 10)
 
+    @pytest.mark.filterwarnings("ignore::scrapy.exceptions.ScrapyDeprecationWarning")
     def test_setdefault(self):
         d = CaselessDict({"a": 1, "b": 2})
 
@@ -212,11 +216,13 @@ class CaseInsensitiveDictTest(CaseInsensitiveDictMixin, unittest.TestCase):
         self.assertEqual(list(iterkeys), ["AsDf", "FoO"])
 
 
+@pytest.mark.filterwarnings("ignore::scrapy.exceptions.ScrapyDeprecationWarning")
 class CaselessDictTest(CaseInsensitiveDictMixin, unittest.TestCase):
     dict_class = CaselessDict
 
     def test_deprecation_message(self):
         with warnings.catch_warnings(record=True) as caught:
+            warnings.filterwarnings("always", category=ScrapyDeprecationWarning)
             self.dict_class({"foo": "bar"})
 
             self.assertEqual(len(caught), 1)
diff --git a/tests/test_utils_misc/__init__.py b/tests/test_utils_misc/__init__.py
index ee3314d8e..4d8e71521 100644
--- a/tests/test_utils_misc/__init__.py
+++ b/tests/test_utils_misc/__init__.py
@@ -4,6 +4,8 @@ import unittest
 from pathlib import Path
 from unittest import mock
 
+import pytest
+
 from scrapy.item import Field, Item
 from scrapy.utils.misc import (
     arg_to_iter,
@@ -97,6 +99,7 @@ class UtilsMiscTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
             list(arg_to_iter(TestItem(name="john"))), [TestItem(name="john")]
         )
 
+    @pytest.mark.filterwarnings("ignore::scrapy.exceptions.ScrapyDeprecationWarning")
     def test_create_instance(self):
         settings = mock.MagicMock()
         crawler = mock.MagicMock(spec_set=["settings"])